The terms ‘Utraquists’, ‘Calixtines’ (Latin: calix = chalice) or ‘Chalice Party’ derives from their symbol, the chalice, which in turn stood for the communio sub utraque specie (that is, receiving Holy Communion under both kinds, namely bread and wine), a key demand of the group.

Initially, the term ‘Utraquists’ was used to refer to all followers of the Hussite movement; from 1436 onwards, however, it referred only to the moderate faction discussed here. The term‘Hussites’was used pejoratively by their opponents.

Czech: Utrakvisté or Kališníci; Polish: Utrakwiści or Kalikstyni; English: Utraquists

The Utraquists were a socially diverse group within the Hussite movement in Bohemia, characterised by both religious and socio-reformist tendencies, which existed from the first half of the 15th century until the Edict of Restitution in 1629. Their demand for the lay chalice stemmed from the views of Magister Jakob von Mies/Jakoubek ze Stříbra (c. 1372–1429), who regarded communion in both forms as essential for salvation (John 6:53) and who introduced the lay chalice in Prague/Praha in 1414. Their demands were less radical than those of the Bohemian Brethren, the Sirotci (‘Orphans’), the Taborites and the Orebites.

The assessment of the Utraquists was shaped by denominational perspectives: Whilst Roman Catholic church historians still regarded them as schismatic or heretical as late as the 1960s, Protestant historians and theologians were inclined to identify common ground with the Utraquists. For the Czechs, Jan Hus (c. 1369–1415) and the movements associated with him represented a unifying element of their identity.

The starting point of the Utraquist Hussite movement, as with all Hussite movements, was the figure of Jan Hus, that priest and theologian whose work and critical theses against the Catholic Church led to his capture by his opponents and ultimately to his death by burning at the stake during the Council of Constance.

Hus’s condemnation, as well as the emerging Hussite revolution, coincided with a period in which there was fierce contention over secular and ecclesiastical supremacy. The Western Schism was resolved at the Council of Constance (1414–1418), but the demanded church reforms were not addressed.

Theologians, such as Jakob von Mies in 1411, distinguished themselves by launching scathing attacks on Catholic ceremonies and customs. Hus, too, had increasingly deviated from Catholic orthodoxy, thereby provoking the reaction that took the form of excommunication and arrest at the Council. In 1415, the Council condemned the use of the chalice by the laity. Although this had not been prohibited in the Catholic Church, it had become uncommon since the 13th century.

A prerequisite for the success of the Hussites – and thus also of the Utraquists – was the perception of ecclesiastical abuses; whilst Hus was not the first to preach against them, he encountered a society in Bohemia – where serious religious, social and national conflicts were emerging – that was willing to embrace change; added to this were the agricultural crisis and problems with the system of benefices. Furthermore, the University of Prague played a role that should not be underestimated, as there were movements for emancipation amongst the Bohemian university community.

The majority of the population in Bohemia were Czechs, although the German-Bohemians who had migrated there held important positions in society, particularly within the clergy. Hus enjoyed particular support amongst the Czech population, from whom the Hussite group of the Utraquists emerged, and amongst the Bohemian (high) nobility, who had an interest in church estates.

The Roman Church was unwilling to accept a permanent special arrangement – that is, the coexistence of two denominations – and sought a strict interpretation of the Compactates in order to leave little standing of the demands of Utraquism. The restitution of property to Catholic nobles also weakened the Utraquists, as did the Catholic King Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary (1456–1516), successor to the Hussite-sympathising King George of Poděbrady, who increasingly championed the Catholic position. The Utraquists’ shortage of priests was exacerbated by Rome’s effective blocking of ordinations. Pope Pius II (1405–1464) rejected the Compactata in 1462; in 1567, they were abolished entirely.

The Utraquists sought to organise themselves, for instance at the St Lawrence Estates Assembly in 1478. Three governing bodies were established: a consistory comprising eight priests and four lay persons, headed by an administrator; an estates-based church leadership, consisting of three elected nobles as chairs of the assembly of the estates (later known as ‘defenders’); and the establishment of Dean's Offices. The centre of the Utraquists was Prague; their consistory was based at St Mary’s Church (Teyn Church) on Old Town Square. In addition to calling for the lay chalice and Mass in the vernacular, the Utraquists were united by their rejection of Roman authority and jurisdiction, their demand for a way of life grounded in the Bible, and their call for stricter church discipline. Apostolic succession, the Mass and the sacraments were not rejected. What distinguished them from more radical groups such as the Taborites was the latter’s demand for a theocracy, their millenarian and egalitarian tendencies, and their rejection of Catholic customs.

The Utraquists formed the majority in Bohemia, both amongst the nobility and the urban bourgeoisie. From 1479 onwards (the reintegration of the Catholic nobility into the provincial assembly), a divide tended to develop between the Catholic high nobility and the king on the one hand, and the Utraquist knights and towns on the other. The estates’ sense of national identity grew, with Utraquism uniting them in their conflict with the central authority.

However, the pressure on the Utraquists – such as the alienation of Utraquist parishes – continued. In 1483, a bloody uprising by the Utraquists took place in the three towns of Prague against councillors sympathetic to the Catholic nobility, which the Utraquists largely won. The king was forced to yield in 1484. The so-called Kuttenberg Religious Peace of 1485 regulated religious freedom and tolerance in Bohemia. Eventually, factions began to form amongst the Utraquists. The anti-Roman wing, with doctrines on the Eucharist, ceremonies and the Mass that diverged from those of Rome, as well as a rigid biblicism, subsequently established close contact with Luther (1483–1546). In the 1520s, this group set the tone and sought to reform Utraquism as a whole.

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