South Caucasus, Transcaucasia, Transcaucasus

Russian: Južnyj Kavkaz/Zakavkaz’e; English: The South Caucasus/Transcaucasia/Transcaucasus; Georgian: სამხრეთი კავკასია; Armenian: Հարավային Կովկաս; Azerbaijani: Cənubi Qafqaz

The term ‘Zakavkaz’e’ is derived from the Latin preposition ‘trans’ (‘beyond’) in conjunction with the Greek ‘Kaukasos’ (Caucasus), and refers to the region south of the Greater Caucasus, a mountain range approximately 1,200 kilometres long stretching between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. The term corresponds to the Russian term Zakavkaz’e (za- = ‘beyond’). The term was coined in the early 19th century in Russian administration and geography, after the Tsarist Empire had extended its influence in this region following several wars against Persia and the Ottoman Empire. In international academic and political terminology, the term ‘South Caucasus’ has become established since the late 20th century. This is regarded as geographically more neutral, as it does not presuppose a North Caucasian or Russian perspective.

The region, with a total area of approximately 186.1 km², lies between Eastern Europe and the Near East, south of the main ridge of the Greater Caucasus, and encompasses the countries of Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. Geographically, the area stretches from the Black Sea in the west to the Caspian Sea in the east.

Topographically, the region forms part of the Alpine orogenic belt and has a complex geological structure. Around 80 per cent of the western parts of the country, particularly Georgia’s Black Sea coast, are characterised by mountainous terrain. These form part of the southern foothills of the Greater Caucasus and reach altitudes of up to 5,000 metres above sea level. In the east, along the Caspian Sea, the relief is dominated by the river systems of the Kura and Aras (also known as the Araks). Towards the west, the terrain rises to the Lesser Caucasus, a fold mountain range that is tectonically linked to the Armenian Highlands. The region is one of the most seismically active zones in Eurasia, as it lies within the collision zone of the Arabian and Eurasian plates. Uplift and erosion have a marked influence on the landscape. In terms of climate, a maritime climate predominates in the west, whilst a continental climate prevails in the east.

The South Caucasus is described in ancient sources (including Herodotus, Pliny, Strabo and Ptolemy) as an important border region and link between Europe and Asia. From the 9th century BC onwards, kingdoms such as Colchis, Urartu, Iberia and Armenia existed here. These were later incorporated into the empires of the Achaemenids, Parthians and Sassanids. During this period, Zoroastrianism^[1] was widespread at times, but lost its significance as regional elites converted to Christianity. Its location on important long-distance trade routes (including the Silk Road) linked the region to wider networks from an early stage. Archaeological and genetic evidence points to an indigenous development of South Caucasian cultures dating back to the 1st millennium BC.

In the Middle Ages, the South Caucasus was the scene of ongoing power struggles between Byzantium, the Sassanid Empire, the Caliphate and, later, Turkic-Mongol powers. Principalities and kingdoms alternated between independence and vassalage. From the 7th century onwards, much of the region came under Arab control (that of the Umayyad and, later, the Abbasid Caliphates). Local elites were granted a degree of autonomy. In the 11th century, invasions by the Central Asian Seljuks led to population shifts and a trend towards Islamisation. At the same time, the Georgian Kingdom, under the Bagratid dynasty, developed into a regional centre of power, reaching its greatest extent under Queen Tamar (1184–1213). The Mongol invasion in the 13th century and the establishment of the Ilkhanate^[2], with its centre in Tabriz (now in Iran), brought further widespread destruction, but also new trade links. In the late Middle Ages, Turkmen dynasties (Kara Koyunlu, Aq Qoyunlu) and the emerging Ottoman and Safavid empires shaped the political order in the region.

The German invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 marked a turning point: On 8 October 1941, the NKVD (Narodnyj Komissariat Vnutrennich Del – People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs) ordered the deportation of people of German descent from the republics of Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan to Siberia or Central Asia. From the South Caucasus – where 46,533 Germans lived – 23,580 people were deported from the Georgian SSR, 22,841 from the Azerbaijani SSR and 212 from the Armenian SSR to Kazakhstan . A small number of Germans – who were members of the Communist Party (372) and the Komsomol (1,077) – were sent to Dagestan and the Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. At the end of October 1941, a further 4,574 people were also deported to Kazakhstan and Siberia .^[5]

After the war, only a few were able to return; most of those affected lost their property and their social networks. Following Stalin’s death in 1953, some measures of rehabilitation were taken, but returning proved difficult, not least due to the loss of property, employment opportunities and contacts, etc. Today, only a small community of German descent remains in the South Caucasus. Cultural traces such as buildings, place names and cemeteries bear witness to this historical legacy. In Georgia, the Association of Germans in Georgia, ‘Einung’ – which has around 2,000 members – is committed to preserving this memory, particularly in Tbilisi .^[6]

The historical economic structure of Transcaucasia was characterised by agricultural production, regional trade and varying degrees of integration into wider regional markets (primarily via the Silk Road trade routes). The development of infrastructure (roads, railways, ports, telegraph networks) as part of Russian expansion promoted internal trade and links with the Tsarist Empire. Key sectors included agriculture (particularly viticulture and livestock farming), mining (in Armenia and western Georgia) and the rapidly growing oil industry around Baku, which made Russia the world’s largest oil producer from the 1870s onwards.

During the Soviet era , collectivisation, industrialisation and a planned economy dominated . Cities such as Tbilisi, Baku and Yerevan developed into centres of light and heavy industry. Oil and gas production in Azerbaijan remained central.

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union , the 1990s saw a massive economic slump characterised by inflation, unemployment and supply crises. Thanks to foreign investment (particularly in the energy sector) and regional infrastructure projects (e.g. the BTC pipeline), economic stabilisation began in the 2000s. Today, the energy sector (particularly in Azerbaijan), tourism, and agricultural and food production shape the region’s economic development.

For centuries, the Transcaucasus region was a geopolitically contested area between great empires. Russian expansion in the 19th century led to the development of military infrastructure in the region (forts, garrisons). German colonists also played a role in this, for example in the supply and transport sectors or within the framework of later conscription regulations (from 1874). Following the 1917 Revolution, local national councils and paramilitary groups took over the administration for a short time. During the Soviet era , the region served as a hinterland (including for oil supplies). The military conflicts since 1991 have led to wars and unstable ceasefires involving international parties (including Russia, Turkey and the USA).

The societies of the region have historically been characterised by their multi-ethnic and multi-faith nature. Their cultural diversity arose from the interplay between Christianity and Islam, as well as through processes of migration and cultural exchange. Four major language families are represented: Altaic (Turkic-speaking) – Azerbaijanis, South Caucasian (Kartvelian) – Georgians, North Caucasian (Abkhaz-Adyghe) – Abkhazians, Indo-European – Armenians (Armenian group) and Ossetians (Iranian group).

In terms of religion, Christianity predominates in Georgia ( Orthodox Church) and Armenia (Armenian Apostolic Church), whilst in Azerbaijan , Shia Islam is the dominant faith (with Sunni minorities). In Abkhazia, part of the population is Sunni Muslim. Despite Soviet secularisation, religious rites – such as those associated with weddings and funerals – have been preserved in everyday life. The Soviet regime sought to establish a unified Soviet identity, yet religious ties endured in many places. Since gaining independence in 1991, all three states have guaranteed freedom of religion. The churches in Georgia and Armenia play a central role in shaping national identity. Religious traditions of minority groups ( e.g. Germans, Jews^[7]) also continue to exist. Azerbaijan’s 2009 Law on Religion stipulates that all religious communities must be registered and has been met with some criticism internationally.

Representatives of the South Caucasian peoples made significant contributions to research into the region – initially during the Tsarist era (for example, within the Caucasian Archaeographic Commission and the Imperial Russian Geographical Society in Tiflis), and later under Soviet auspices at academies and universities. Key figures include, amongst others, the historian Dmitri Z. Bakradze (1826–1890), the archaeologist, philologist and Vice-President of the Academy Nikolai J. Marr (1864–1934), the historian and co-founder of Tbilisi University, Ivane Javakhishvili (1876–1904), the geologist Franz J. Levinson-Lessing (1861–1939), the archaeologist Iosif A. Orbeli (long-serving director of the Hermitage, 1887–1961), the chemist Yusif Mämmädälijew (Azerbaijani: Yusif Heydər oğlu Məmmədəliyev, 1905–1961), the poet Akhmed Dzhavad (Azerbaijani: Cavad Məhəmmədəli oğlu Axundzadə, 1892–1937; author of the Azerbaijani national anthem).

People of German descent also contributed to the development of the educational landscape and the sciences, both by establishing their own school system and through researchers such as the geologist Otto W. H. Abich (1806–1886) and the translator Arthur Leist (1852–1927). Soviet ideologisation severely restricted the German-language education system.

The art of Transcaucasia dates back to the 3rd BC and is characterised by a diverse range of cultural layers – from the cultures of Urartu (9th–6th centuries BC) with Assyrian influences, through Seleucid-Hellenistic traditions, to Christian traditions.

Since the 19th century, settlers of German origin have also contributed to the history of architecture and art, particularly in settlement and urban planning. In Baku and other cities, they designed churches, residential and commercial buildings, and theatres – mostly in the European style. A striking example is the Vohrer House in Goygol (Helenendorf), featuring typical German stylistic elements such as carved wood and a symmetrical façade layout. Conversely, these architectural traditions also influenced local building and craft cultures.

The region’s music is diverse: Armenia and Georgia have a tradition of polyphonic singing, whilst Azerbaijan has preserved the improvised mugham . In the 19th and 20th centuries, national music schools emerged that combined traditional motifs with Western composition. Classical musicians were also supported during the Soviet era , though folklore remained a defining influence.

Literature in the region is rooted in a rich oral tradition (epics, fairy tales) as well as Christian written traditions (particularly in Armenia and Georgia). In the 20th century, modern literary scenes developed, partly amidst the tensions of Soviet cultural policy. Today, pre-Soviet motifs – such as scenes from folklore and heroic tales – are once again being increasingly revisited and reinterpreted, including in cinema and theatre.

The population of German origin also made cultural contributions: the music teacher Eduard Epstein ( ) was active in Tbilisi from 1857 onwards.^[8] In the colonies, choirs, theatre groups and choral societies sprang up, combining German song traditions with local folklore. German-language literature documented the everyday lives of the settlers.

There are currently twelve UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the region,^[9] including significant churches, monasteries and archaeological sites of Christian and Muslim tradition (e.g. the Old Town of Şəki and the Khan’s Palace in Baku). However, a shared regional culture of remembrance is severely constrained by inter-state conflicts (e.g. Armenia–Azerbaijan) and intra-state tensions (e.g. Georgia–Abkhazia/South Ossetia). The memory of the Second World War remains a unifying factor: in all these states, 9 May isobserved as the anniversary of the victory over Nazi Germany .

A key debate centres on regional identity between Europe and Asia, as well as the tension between Russian influence and national autonomy. A point of controversy is whether the Soviet Union brought stability – by suppressing ethnic conflicts – or whether it merely postponed their resurgence after 1991. The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict has fuelled nationalised, often ethnopolitically charged interpretations of history. There are therefore calls for a de-ideologised historiography that overcomes the ‘curse of the past’^[10]. In Georgia, meanwhile , as part of higher education reforms, Ilia State University underwent organisational restructuring, which is being discussed in academic circles as a significant change to, or restriction of, the university’s structure.

With regard to the Caucasus Germans, there is debate as to whether the praise of ‘German intellectual culture’ emphasised in their media contributed to a sense of superiority regarding their own culture, thereby helping to set them apart from other population groups.^[11] Their self-designation as ‘Caucasus Germans’ rather than‘Russian Germans’, however, can be seen as an expression of regional identity.

• Elchin T. Aliyev: German Heritage in the Architecture of Azerbaijan. Baku 2017.
• Eva-Maria Auch: Between Self-Sufficiency and Adaptation. Germans in the Multicultural Environment of the South Caucasus. In: Eva-Maria Auch (ed.): Germans in the Multicultural Environment of the South Caucasus. Baden-Baden [Würzburg] 2017, pp. 13–34 (Oriental Studies 27).
• Ibid.: Oil and Wine in the Caucasus: German Explorers, Settlers and Entrepreneurs in Pre-Revolutionary Azerbaijan. Wiesbaden 2001.
• Stephen D. Batiuk: The Fruits of Migration: Understanding the ‘Longue Durée’ and the Socio-Economic Relations of the Early Trans-Caucasian Culture. In: Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 32 (2013), pp. 449–477.
• Svante E. Cornell: The Politicisation of Islam in Azerbaijan. Washington–Uppsala 2006 (Silk Road Papers).
• Tamara Černova-Deke: German Settlements on the Periphery of the Russian Empire. The Caucasus: A View Through the Centuries (1817–1917) (marking the 190th anniversary of the German colonies) [German Settlements on the Peripheries of the Russian Empire. The Caucasus: A View Through the Centuries (marking the 190th anniversary of the German colonies)]. Moscow 2008.
• Ėl’dar Ismailov, Rauf Karagezov: Confrontational Collective Memory in the Caucasus: How to Overcome the ‘Curse of the Past?’ [Confrontational Collective Memory in the Caucasus: ‘How can the curse of the past be overcome?’] In: Kavkaz i Globalizacija: Geokul’tura, 1/4 (2007) [The Caucasus and Globalisation: Geoculture], pp. 117–126.
• Rena Kadyrova: Memory, Emotions and Mass Behaviour in a Situation of Ethnopolitical Conflict: Nagorno-Karabakh [Memory, Emotions and Mass Behaviour in a Situation of Ethnopolitical Conflict: Nagorno-Karabakh]. In: Kavkaz i Globalizacija: Geokul’tura 3–4 (2011), pp. 91–105.
• Andreas Kappeler: Russia as a Multi-Ethnic Empire. Origins – History – Collapse. Munich 2001.
• Philip L. Kohl, Gocha Tsetskhladze: Nationalism, Politics and the Practice of Archaeology in the Caucasus. In: Philip L. Kohl, Clare Fawcett (eds.): Nationalism, Politics and the Practice of Archaeology, Cambridge 2005 [1995], pp. 149–174. Antonio Sagona: The Archaeology of the Caucasus: From Earliest Settlements to the Iron Age, Cambridge 2018.
• Viktor Krieger: Germans in the Caucasus. A comparative study of the colonies in Georgia and Azerbaijan. In: Yearbook of German and East European Folklore, 42 (2000), pp. 45–72.
• Jörg Stadelbauer: The Caucasus as a Natural Region. Diversity, Contrasts, Risks. In: Osteuropa, 7–10 (2015), pp. 7–44.
• Ronald Grigor Suny: The Making of the Georgian Nation. 2nd ed. Bloomington 1994.
• Nestan Tatarashvili: German Settlements and Architectural Heritage in Georgia. Tbilisi 2018.
• Lilija Wedel: German Print Media and Advertising in the Tsarist Empire. Regional Case Studies of Ethnic Ideologisation, Cosmopolitanism and Consumer Policy (1871–1914). In: JKGE: Multilingualism in the German-language Press of Eastern Europe, 4 (2023), pp. 89–108.
• Christoph Zürcher: The Post-Soviet Wars: Rebellion, Ethnic Conflict, and Nationhood in the Caucasus. New York–London 2007.

• Kavkaz (Tiflis, 1846–1917)
• Kaspij (Baku, 1881–1917)
• Kaukasische Post (Tbilisi, 1906–1918)
• Tiflisskij Listok (Tbilisi, from 1902)
• Vestnik Kavkaza (Tbilisi, 1879–1880)
• The Caucasus & Globalisation
• Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Armenia

• Ira Peter: ‘Work, always work’ – Swabian traces in Georgia. In: German Cultural Forum for Eastern Europe. Cultural Correspondence Eastern Europe 1436/7 (2023). URL: www.kulturforum.info/de/kk-magazin/momente/8879-schaffe-immer-schaffe-schwaebische-spuren-in-georgien (accessed 22 September 2025).

• Svobodnaja Gruzija, 4 September 1997. URL: science.org.ge/old/cevrebi/statiebi/3/Zakavkazie%20ili%20iuzhni%20kabkaz.pdf (accessed 9 September 2025)

• Allinnet.info: ‘Helenendorf – City of Germans and Armenians’. URL: https://allinnet.info/history/helenendorf-city-of-germans-and-armenians/?utm_source=chatgpt.com (Accessed: 19 March 2026)

[1] A structured religion that emerged in the 1st millennium BC in the Iranian cultural sphere – now northern Afghanistan and Central Asia – and which is based on the teachings of its founder, Zarathustra.

[2] A Mongol empire in the Iranian and Near Eastern region from 1256 to 1335, founded by a grandson of Genghis Khan. The term is derived from the title Ilkhan (roughly ‘subordinate Khan’). It was at times in rivalry with the Golden Horde.

[3] Also: *Between Autarky and Adaptation*, p. 24; ibid.: *Oil and Wine in the Caucasus*, p. 204.

[4] Kappeler: Russia as a Multi-ethnic Empire, p. 163.

[5] J. Otto Pohl: Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937–1949. Westport [et al.] 1999, p. 40, footnote 152, p. 41, footnote 161.

[6] Association of Germans in Georgia ‘Einung’. URL: https://fuen.org/en/members/Association-of-Germans-of-Georgia-Einung?utm_source=chatgpt.com (accessed 18 September 2025).

[7] Different sources (including the World Jewish Congress) cite varying figures; in the South Caucasus as a whole, the total ranges from approximately 6,000 to 16,000 people.

[8] Biography in the Riemann Music Encyclopaedia. 5th ed. Translated from the German by Ju. D. Engel and B. P. Jurgenson. Vol. 3. Moscow–Leipzig 1904 [Leipzig 1900], pp. 1482–1483.

[9] World Heritage List. URL: whc.unesco.org/en/list/ (accessed 25 November 2025).

[10] Ismailov, Karagezov: Konfrontirujuščaja kollektivnaja pamjat’, p. 126.

[11] Wedel: German Press, pp. 94ff.

Lilija Wedel: South Caucasus / Transcaucasia. In: Online Encyclopaedia on the Culture and History of Germans in Eastern Europe, 2026. URL: ome-lexikon.uni-oldenburg.de/p114770 (as at 24 April 2026).