Sevastopol'
Sevastopol'
Etymology
The city’s name derives from the Greek terms sebastós, meaning ‘respectable’ or ‘venerable’, and pólis, meaning ‘city’. Its founder, Grigory A. Potemkin (1739–1791), adapted this name into Russian and consequently named the city ‘Sevastopol’, based on the Greek name ‘Sebastopolis’.
Topography
The city lies on the Black Sea; its area of approximately 864 km² is surrounded by bays along the coast. Including the bays, the total area is approximately 1,080 km².
Political and administrative affiliation
Until 2014, the city, like the Ukrainian capital Kyiv/Kiew, was under the direct authority of the Ukrainian government. From the perspective of the Ukrainian government and the UN, the Crimean Peninsula in general and the city of Sevastopol in particular are currently considered temporarily occupied territories that continue to belong to Ukraine. The Russian Federation, however, regards the region as part of Russia following the annexation of Crimea in 2014. Within the Russian Federation, Sevastopol has been assigned to the Southern Federal District and has the status of a federal subject.
Common symbolism
The town’s coat of arms was designed during the Soviet era and features, in the lower left-hand half, the ‘Monument to Sunken Ships’ (Pamjatnyk zatoplenym korabljam) against an azure background. The golden star in the upper half symbolises the city’s status as a Hero City (Ukrainian: misto-heroj; Russian:gorod-geroj).
Nicknames
City of Heroes (Ukrainian: misto-heroj; Russian: gorod-geroj), awarded on 8 May 1965 in recognition of the ultimately unsuccessful but valiant defence of the city during the Battle of Sevastopol in the Second World War.
Prehistory and Early History, the Middle Ages
Archaeological finds suggest that the region around Sevastopol was already settled by Greeks as early as around 700 BC. The settlement bore the Greek name Chersonesos. Archaeological finds and late antique records also show that the region had been settled by the Goths since the 3rd century. They originally came from the Danube region and were initially brought to the region of the Bosporus (the strait between the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea) by Byzantine armies, but subsequently also settled in the west of the Crimea. From the 8th century onwards, the city belonged to the Khazar Khanate, before coming under Byzantine influence in the 10th century. It was destroyed in the 14th century.
The ancient ruins of Chersonesos are now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Modern times
Modern-day Sevastopol was founded in 1783, following the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire. At that time, Tatars were already living here in loose, non-administratively organised communities. Like Kherson and Yekaterinoslav/Dnipropetrovsk, Sevastopol was one of the towns founded by Prince Grigory A. Potemkin, who was responsible for the settlement of so-called ‘New Russia’ (Novorossiya). Initially, the city was called ‘Achtiar’ due to the Tatars living nearby, but was later renamed ‘Sevastopol’. Owing to its favourable location, it quickly took on the role of a naval and military base in the occupied Crimea. Among those responsible for the city’s development were General Aleksandr V. Suvorov-Rymnikski (1730–1800) and Admiral Fëdor F. Ušakov (1745–1817).
The founding of Sevastopol was accompanied by the establishment of Russian administration throughout the Crimea. As early as 1784, Catherine II issued an invitation to ‘all nations friendly to the Russian Empire’[1]to settle in Kherson, Sevastopol or Feodosia. Among other things, this led to German colonists settling here, particularly those from southern Germany and Switzerland; they founded colonies in the vicinity of the city, whose settlements bore German names, such as Heilbronn, Friedensthal or Zürichthal. Southern Russia and the Crimea were popular destinations for German colonists. In the Crimea, problems arose initially, as the local Crimean Tatar population was largely opposed to Russian rule.
Contemporary History
Between 1917 and 1918, the city was part of the short-lived People’s Republic of Crimea, which was crushed by the Black Sea Fleet. From 1921, Sevastopol belonged to the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic of Crimea. Unlike the territories in eastern Ukraine, Crimea was not affected by the Holodomor[2] .
During the Second World War, Nazi plans envisaged that the Crimea would be ‘Germanised’. Hitler had already expressed this intention in July 1941, when the Crimea was not yet anywhere near the front line. The peninsula was to serve as a military and cultural outpost of the German Reich. The Nazis planned to rename the city of Sevastopol ‘Theoderichshafen’, in reference to the Goths who had previously settled in the area. By May 1942, the Crimea – with the exception of the city of Sevastopol and the regions around Feodosia and Kerch – had been occupied by the Wehrmacht. As part of the‘General Plan East’, it was to be reorganised into the administrative unit ‘Gotengau’. To this end, 561,200 Germans were to be resettled alongside the Slavs and Tatars; a total population of 1.1 million was targeted for the ‘Gotengau’. The remaining Slavic and Tatar population – an estimated 500,000 people – was to be ‘tolerated’ as ‘labourers’ for the German colonists, in accordance with the plans of the‘General Plan East’.However, even at this stage, the plans already included a ‘surplus’ of around half a million people (‘non-Germans’), whose fate remained uncertain. Furthermore, a de facto genocide took place in the Crimea, carried out jointly by the Wehrmacht and the SS Einsatzgruppen, to which almost the entire Jewish population, as well as almost all Sinti and Roma, fell victim, with only a very few survivors. Repression was also directed against the Slavs and Tatars living there in the course of the Battle of Sevastopol, and, following the capture of the city, the remaining Jewish inhabitants were murdered.[3] As the fighting for Sevastopol continued until 1942, there was still strong resistance from the Soviet population well into late 1942, and the peninsula was recaptured by the Red Army in 1944, a ‘Gotengau’ was ultimately never established.
From 1945 to 1948, Sevastopol was part of the Crimean Oblast and, from 1948, an independent administrative unit. To mark the 300th anniversary of the Treaty of Pereyaslav (Pereyaslav), which refers to the oath of allegiance sworn by the Zaporozhian Cossacks to the Russian Tsar Alexei I, Nikita S. Khrushchev (Khrushchev, 1894–1971) ‘gifted’ the Crimea to the Ukrainian SSR. Until 1991, this was primarily a symbolic gesture. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, Sevastopol became the only Ukrainian city, apart from Kyiv, to be placed directly under the authority of the Ukrainian government. As early as 1993, the city became a bone of contention between the two countries when the Russian parliament passed a resolution seeking to unilaterally declare Sevastopol a federal city of Russia. The rights of use for the port were established under the bilateral Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1997, and the conflict was settled until the so-called ‘Crimean crisis’.
Following the Ukrainian Revolution of 2013–2014 (‘Euromaidan’, also known as the ‘Revolution of Dignity’ [Ukrainian: Revoljucija hidnosti]), Russian military units without insignia occupied Crimea from 20 February 2014, in breach of international law.
The Russian government used the referendum on the annexation of Crimea held on 16 March 2014 as a pretext. Consequently, Russian President Vladimir Putin spoke of the need to ‘reclaim Crimea’[4]. The Russian Federation was only permitted to maintain a military presence in Sevastopol, within a limited area for the use of the Black Sea Fleet. As part of the annexation of Crimea, the Russian military seized three Ukrainian warships in the port of Sevastopol.
Since then, executive power within the city government has been in the hands of the governor, a newly created office. Following two predecessors, this post was taken up by Dmitry Ovsyannikov on 28 July 2016.
Administration
In the Soviet Union, Sevastopol was a ‘closed city’ due to its military installations. This meant that visitors had to apply for a special permit in order to stay in the city. This did not change until the 1990s, when residents of Crimea were first permitted to visit the city (from 1994), followed later by Ukrainians, Russians and foreigners in general (from 1996).
Today, Sevastopol is divided into four districts in relation to the surrounding localities.
Population
Owing to the city’s military importance, the authorities in the Tsarist Empire kept the proportion of the non-Slavic population as low as possible; Sevastopol was regarded as the ‘most Russian city in the Crimea’[5]. In 1856, just under 100,000 Crimean Tatars left the Crimea with the Ottoman army. By the end of the 19th century, the number of Crimean Tatars had fallen by two-thirds compared with the period before the Russian conquest.[6] Parts of the Crimean Tatar population collaborated with the Nazi regime during the Second World War. Stalin used this as a pretext to collectively deport the Crimean Tatars – totalling around 202,000 people – to the Central Asian regions of the Soviet Empire in May 1944.[7] Between 1944 and 1949, Crimean Tatars, along with all other non-Slavic ethnic groups (with the exception of Armenians), were expelled from the Crimea. The settlement of Russians and Ukrainians was actively encouraged. Black Sea Germans had already been forcibly resettled in August 1941, immediately following the invasion of the Soviet Union. In the 1950s, Khrushchev rehabilitated many of the ethnic groups persecuted by Stalin; a partial rehabilitation of the German population in the Soviet Union (acquittal of the charge of collaboration, but no right to return to their former settlement areas) took place in 1964. It was not until 1989 that the repatriation of the Crimean Tatars began. Consequently, according to the Ukrainian census, 437 Crimean Tatars were living there in 2001[8], whilst the 2014 Russian census recorded 2,814 Crimean Tatars living in Sevastopol[9]. In 2001, 254 people of German nationality were recorded; by 2014, however, this figure had fallen to 196.[10] On 21 April 2014, Putin issued a decree on the rehabilitation of the Crimean Tatars and other peoples deported during the Second World War, including the Germans, whereby Russia acknowledged the historical injustice of the deportation.[11]
The total population of the city of Sevastopol grew during the Soviet period from 68,003 in 1926 to 392,826 in 1989.[12] Until 2014, the official language was Ukrainian, whilst Russian served as the primary language of communication. According to the 2001 Ukrainian census, there were around 84,400 ethnic Ukrainians in Sevastopol[13], only just under 25,500 people stated Ukrainian as their mother tongue.[14] As early as 2001, ethnic Russians, numbering around 270,000, made up the majority (71.6 per cent) of the city’s population; this figure rose to 303,100 (77.1 per cent) by 2014.[15]
Economy
In the 18th century, the Crimea – and with it the city of Sevastopol – offered the Tsarist Empire new opportunities: the soil was fertile and rich in untapped resources, which were brought into use through settlement. The towns founded here enjoyed an excellent supply situation and were set to develop into new trading hubs. For the city of Sevastopol, the harbour became the most important factor in its subsequent economic development. In 1804, it became the Tsarist Empire’s main port on the Black Sea.
The Black Sea Fleet remains significant for the city’s economy. On the one hand, it provides many jobs; on the other, the shipyards are now the city’s most important industrial sector. Furthermore, the Uranis radio sets, which have been in production since the Soviet era, are an important export commodity. Since the city was opened up, the tourism sector was expanded up until 2014, and since the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, there has been a particular focus on promoting domestic tourism in Crimea.
Following the annexation of Crimea, the peninsula became a special economic zone of the Russian Federation in order to intensify the mutual exchange of goods and finance.
Military history
From the end of the 18th century, Sevastopol, like the rest of the Crimea, was fortified for military purposes, particularly against the Ottoman Empire. The city was also assigned the administrative headquarters of the Black Sea Fleet, which had previously been based in Kherson.
During the siege by Britain, France and the Ottoman Empire as part of the Crimean War of 1854–55, large parts of Sevastopol were destroyed. The historic city centre could not be fully rebuilt in the years that followed.
The defeat of the Russian army in Sevastopol marked the end of the Crimean War. The ‘Catastrophe of Sevastopol’[16] also demonstrated the military and technical inferiority of the Tsarist Empire and became a symbol of the need for reform. After the end of the Crimean War, the German population in the Crimean colonies was honoured for having collected and donated funds for the urban population of Sevastopol.
Based on the experiences of the Crimean War, both the Russian and Soviet empires pushed ahead with the expansion of their defences right up until the Second World War.
During the Second World War, the Battle of Sevastopol took place between 1941 and 1942 between Wehrmacht troops and the Red Army, as a result of which the city was almost completely destroyed. On 9 May 1944, Red Army troops under the command of Andrei Yeromenko (1892–1970) recaptured the city. From spring 1944 to June 1948, a prisoner-of-war camp (Uprawlenije 241) for German soldiers from the Second World War was located near the city. Today, the site is home to a war cemetery containing approximately 4,500 graves.
History of Religion and the Church
In Vladimir Cathedral in the city centre, a Russian Orthodox church built in the 19th century, prominent admirals of the Black Sea Fleet were laid to rest. The building was destroyed during the Second World War and rebuilt in the 1960s.
Alongside other Orthodox churches and a Greek Catholic church, the city is also home to the Roman Catholic Church of St Clement.
Since the return of the Crimean Tatars in 1989, there has officially been an Islamic community in Sevastopol. The Ak’jar Džami Mosque was built between 1909 and 1914. After services were suspended in 1938, they have been held again since 1992. In the 2000s, the community was granted its own Islamic cemetery and a madrasa (Koran school).
The census data confirm the presence of a large number of religious minorities, not all of which maintain their own communities.
The oldest Jewish group in Crimea were the Crimean Chakshaks, who arrived on the peninsula in the 2nd century BC. In the 8th century, Karaites also settled in Crimea. As early as 1941, during the fighting for the Crimea and Sevastopol, General Erich von Manstein (1887–1973) ordered the ‘extermination’ of the ‘Jewish-Bolshevik system’ in the Crimea.[17]Jews in the Crimea were subjected to rigorous persecution during the occupation. The order was subsequently interpreted broadly and repeatedly redefined, with the result that the genocide affected all ethnic groups on the peninsula. This was particularly true of the Crimean Tatars, the Karaites, the Mountain Jews and the Roma; several mass shootings of these population groups took place. One of the largest massacres took place in Sevastopol. In July 1942, the second-largest Jewish community on the peninsula (with over 6,000 members) lived there. Although a large proportion of the Jewish population had been evacuated whilst Sevastopol was still under siege, the occupying forces nevertheless found over 500 Jews in the ruins, who were murdered outside the city shortly afterwards.[18]
Since the collapse of communism, Jewish community life in Crimea has been revitalised. Today, there are once again synagogues in Sevastopol: the Karaims’ka Kenasa, built between 1896 and 1908, and the Chabad Synagogue, which belongs to the Jewish community of Sevastopol and was opened in 2014.
Special cultural institutions
In addition to the Lunačarskij Theatre, there are, in particular, institutions linked to the Black Sea Fleet stationed in Sevastopol, such as the Black Sea Fleet Theatre and the Black Sea Fleet Library, named after M. P. Lazarev (Morskaya Biblioteka imeni M. P. Lazareva).
Education and Science
The city is home to the following educational institutions: the ‘
’ Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, the Sevastopol State Polytechnic University, the Sevastopol Institute of Nuclear Energy, the Sevastopol Marine Institute, the Kovalewski Institute of Biology of the Southern Seas, and a branch of Moscow State University (MGU).
Everyday culture
The Crimean football clubs, including PFK Sevastopol, were expelled from the Ukrainian Football League on 1 July 2014. Following a protest by the Ukrainian Football Association, UEFA banned the admission of Crimean football clubs into the Russian league. In 2015, a separate Crimean football league was established, in which FC Sevastopol finished second in the 2015/16 season. However, the league is not independent but is funded by Russia.
Music
The Russian composer Boris A. Tchaikovsky (1925–1996) explored the theme of the city in his Third Symphony.
Bibliography
Owing to the events of the war, the city featured prominently in Russian literature. Among others, Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910) recorded his memories of the Crimean War in the *Sevastopol Stories* (*Sevastopol’skie rasskazy*).
Abba Kovner (1918–1987), a Lithuanian-Israeli writer and partisan leader during the Second World War, was born in Sevastopol in 1918.
Culture of memory and remembrance
Shortly after its foundation, the city became a place of historical significance for the Tsarist Empire, as it was to become a symbol of the successful settlement of the Crimea and southern Ukraine.
Serhii Plokhy identifies two significant myths surrounding the city: a Soviet one, based on the events of the Second World War, and a Russian nationalist one, founded on the postulated heroism of the Tsarist army in the Crimean War.[19] The glorification of Ukrainian and Belarusian war heroes in the late Soviet era called into question the predominantly Russian character of the city in the second half of the 20th century, but was never able to supplant the aforementioned narratives.[20] In total, there are just under 2,000 monuments in the city dealing with the Crimean War and the Battle of Sevastopol during the Second World War. The Monument to the Sunk Ships (Pamjatnyk zatoplenym korabljam), erected in 1905 to a design by the Estonian sculptor Amandus Adamson, commemorates the Black Sea Fleet, which was destroyed during the Crimean War whilst attempting to block access to the city.
These memories were supplanted after the Second World War, when Sevastopol became a ‘symbol of national suffering’[21] . Within the local landscape of memory, the Sevastopol Panorama is a prime example. Completely destroyed during the Second World War, it was extensively restored in the 1950s. It weaves two of the city’s wartime experiences – the Crimean War and the Second World War – into everyday life and thus epitomises the ‘collective trivialisation of the war experience’[22].
The city is also significant for the cult of heroism surrounding the ‘Great Patriotic War’ (1941–1945) due to its siege. Among other honours, it bears the title ‘City of Heroes’ (Ukrainian: misto-heroj; Russian: gorod-geroj). The diorama ‘The Assault on Sapun Hill on 7 May 1944’, built in 1959, commemorates the recapture of the fortress in the south of Sevastopol Bay, which had been occupied by the Wehrmacht. There are also several German military cemeteries in the city and its surrounding area.
4. Discourses/Controversies
The annexation of Crimea in March 2014 is not recognised by the UN, the European Union or Ukraine.[23] The Russian government, on the other hand, points out that the city council – which had already been dominated by Russians – unilaterally declared its intention to join the Russian Federation in March 2014. It also argues that, in the referendum on the status of Crimea on 16 March 2014, just under 97 per cent of voters supported Crimea’s unification with Russia. In fact, however, the referendum had been preceded by the forcible removal of the regional parliament. The vote itself contravened the Ukrainian constitution; there was no independent election monitoring, but there were reports of widespread electoral fraud. Furthermore, the ballot paper offered no option to vote for the status quo – for Crimea to remain part of Ukraine.
Bibliography
- Hans Auerbach: The Settlement of Southern Ukraine in the Years 1774–1787. Wiesbaden 1965 (Publications of the Institute for Eastern European Studies, Munich 25).
- Burkhard Böttger: Greeks and Romans. In: Thomas Werner (ed.): Unknown Crimea. Archaeological Treasures from Three Millennia. Heidelberg 1999, pp. 34–54.
- Detlef Brandes: Adopted by the Tsars. The German Colonists and the Balkan Settlers in New Russia and Bessarabia 1751–1914. Munich 1993 (Publications of the Federal Institute for East German Culture and History 2).
- Orlando Figes: The Crimean War. A History. New York 2010.
- Ingeborg Fleischhauer: The Germans in the Tsarist Empire. Two Centuries of German–Russian Cultural Community. Stuttgart 1986.
- Robert Forczyk: Sevastopol 1942. Von Manstein’s Triumph. Oxford 2008 (Osprey Military Campaign Series 189).
- David M. Griffiths: Catherine II Discovers the Crimea. In: Yearbooks for the History of Eastern Europe 56 (2008), No. 1, pp. 339–348.
- Manfred Hildermeier: A History of Russia from the Middle Ages to the October Revolution. 2nd ed. Munich 2013 (Historical Library of the Gerda Henkel Foundation).
- Kerstin S. Jobst: The Pearl of the Empire. The Russian Discourse on the Crimea in the Tsarist Empire. Konstanz 2007 (Historical Cultural Studies 11).
- Viktor Krieger: Colonists, Soviet Germans, Resettlers. A History of the Russian Germans. Bonn 2015 (Publications of the Federal Agency for Civic Education 1631).
- Norbert Kunz: The Crimea under German Rule 1941–1944. The Utopia of Germanisation and the Reality of Occupation. Darmstadt 2005 (Publications of the Ludwigsburg Research Centre 5).
- Dmytro Myeshkov: The Black Sea Germans and Their Worlds. 1781–1871. Düsseldorf 2008 (Publications on Culture and History in Eastern Europe 30).
- G. V. Paramonova: Sevastopol. In: Wieczynski, Joseph L.: The Modern Encyclopaedia of Russian and Soviet History 53 (1990), pp. 7–8.
- Serhii Plokhy: The City of Glory. Sevastopol in Russian Historical Mythology. In: Journal of Contemporary History 35 (2000), No. 3, pp. 369–383.
- Peter J. Potichnyj: The Struggle of the Crimean Tatars. In: Canadian Slavonic Papers 17 (1975), No. 2/3, pp. 302–319.
- Karl D. Qualls: From Ruins to Reconstruction. Urban Identity in Soviet Sevastopol after the Second World War. Ithaca, NY 2009.
Web links
- http://www.laender-analysen.de/ukraine/archiv.php (Ukraine Analyses. Provide information on the current political situation in Ukraine in general and in Crimea in particular).
- http://www.sevmb.com/ (Website of the Black Sea Fleet Library)
- www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/population/demo/perepis_krim/tab-krim/pub-04-01.xlsx (Results of the 2014 Russian census in Crimea)
Notes
[1] Brandes: Adopted by the Tsars, p. 29.
[2] The ‘Holodomor’ (Ukrainian for ‘death by starvation’) refers to a famine brought about by Stalinist policies, which claimed the lives of several million people in 1932–1933. The controversy surrounding the Holodomor (and its classification as ‘genocide’) has been one of the most significant debates concerning the culture of remembrance in Ukraine since 1991 and has strained relations with the Russian Federation since the government of Viktor Yushchenko. For an overview, see www.bpb.de/internationales/europa/ukraine/174179/analyse-80-jahre-holodomor-die-grosse-hungersnot-in-der-ukraine?p=all.
[3] Kunz: The Crimea, pp. 59, 179–205.
[4] Article ‘Putin: Russia could not “abandon” Crimea’, available at: www.zeit.de/news/2015-03/09/russland-putin-russland-konnte-krim-nicht-im-stich-lassen-09235009 (accessed 14 August 2018).
[5] Jobst: The Pearl of the Empire, p. 352.
[6] Uwe Halbach: ‘The Crimean Tatars in the Ukraine Crisis’. In: Ukraine Analyses 141, 13 November 2014, pp. 2–6: www.laender-analysen.de/ukraine/pdf/UkraineAnalysen141.pdf (accessed 14 August 2018), p. 2.
[7] *Naselenie Rossii v XX Veke* [The Population of Russia in the 20th Century]. *Istoričeskie očerki* [Historical Overview]. Vol. 1: 1900–1939. Moscow 2000, p. 369. On the subject of the Crimean Tatars, see Potichnyj: The Struggle of the Crimean Tatars, p. 306. According to Halbach, the number of deportees was 238,500: cf. Uwe Halbach: The Crimean Tatars in the Ukraine Crisis. In: Ukraine Analyses 141, 13 November 2014, pp. 2–6: www.laender-analysen.de/ukraine/pdf/UkraineAnalysen141.pdf (accessed 14 August 2018), p. 3.
[8] 2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/rus/results/nationality_population/.
[9] Tables containing the results of the Federal Statistical Survey ‘Population Census in the Crimean Federal District’. 4.1. Ethnic composition of the population [Results of the 2014 Russian census in Crimea]: www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/population/demo/perepis_krim/tab-krim/pub-04-01.xlsx (accessed 14 August 2018).
[10] See [8] and [9].
[11] www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/ausland/krim-putin-rehabilitiert-deutsche-und-tataren-12903836.html.
[12] Naselenie Rossii v XX Veke [The Population of Russia in the 20th Century]. Istoričeskie očerki [Historical Overview]. Volume 1: 1900–1939. Moscow 2000, p. 369, and Vsesojuznaja perepis’ naselenija 1989 g [All-Union Population Census 1989]. Population figures for the union republics of the USSR and their territorial units by gender: demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng89_reg1.php (accessed 14 August 2018).
[13] See [9].
[14] 2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/general/nationality/ (accessed 14 August 2018).
[15] See [9].
[16] Hildermeier: History of Russia, p. 884.
[17] Kunz: The Crimea, p. 179.
[18] Kunz: The Crimea, p. 202ff.
[19] Plokhy: *The City of Glory*, pp. 381, 383.
[20] Jobst: The Pearl of the Empire, p. 351.
[21] Jobst: The Pearl of the Empire, p. 373.
[22] Plokhy: *The City of Glory*, pp. 381, 383.
[23] UN Resolution 68/262, 1 April 2014, Territorial integrity of Ukraine: www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/68/262 (accessed 14 August 2018) and “On Ensuring Civil Rights and Freedoms, and the Legal Regime on the Temporarily Occupied Territory of Ukraine”: zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/anot/en/1207-18 (accessed 17 August 2021).
Citation
Martin Rohde, Phillip Schroeder: Sevastopol. In: Online Encyclopaedia on the Culture and History of Germans in Eastern Europe, 2019. URL: ome-lexikon.uni-oldenburg.de/p32255 (as at 14 July 2020).
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