Krakow/Kraków
Krakow/Kraków
Names in other languages
Latin: Cracovia; Czech/Slovak: Krakov; Lithuanian: Krokuva; Hungarian: Krakkó; Russian: Krakov; Yiddish: Kroke
Etymology
The name of the city is thought to derive from the legendary tribal chieftain and alleged founder of the city, Krak (also known as Krakus or Gracchus). According to a folk legend first recorded around 1220 in Vincentius Kadlubek’s (Wincenty Kadłubek) *Chronica Polonorum*, Krak succeeded in averting disaster from his people by outwitting a monster dwelling in a cave on Wawel Hill.[1]
Historical terms
Karako, Cracoua, Cracoa, Cracow, Crac(c)ovia, Crachoientia, Crakow, Crakaw, Krakow[2]
Political and administrative affiliation
With a population of 761,873 (as of 2014)[3], Kraków is the second-largest city in the Republic of Poland after Warsaw (Warszawa). Administratively, Kraków is the capital of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship (Województwo małopolskie) and a city with independent status within Kraków County (Powiat krakowski).
Region
Kr aków is situated in the historical region of Lesser Poland (Małopolska, Latin: Polonia Minor). This should not be equated with the present-day Lesser Poland Voivodeship, which is many times smaller; rather, it refers to the territory situated along the upper and middle Vistula, which was annexed to Greater Poland – ruled by Mieszko I (d. 992) and was expanded to include the regions of Ruthenia, Podlasie, Volhynia and Podolia until the Union of Lublin (1569). As a result of the Partitions of Poland-Lithuania, Lesser Poland fell to Austria; the northern part was allocated to Russia in 1815.
Common symbolism
The city’s crowned coat of arms, in the version in use since 2002, depicts a city wall with three towers and the city gate, between whose open wings a white eagle is depicted. The city’s colours are white and blue.
Nicknames
During the period when Kraków was a city-republic (1815–1846), it developed into the spiritual capital (stolica duchowa) of the nation. In contrast to Warsaw, it was regarded as the cultural capital of Poland or even as the ‘Polish Athens’. Owing to its religious buildings and its significance as a bishop’s see (archbishop’s see), Kraków was also referred to as the ‘Polish Rome’. Its reputation as the ‘Florence of the North’ is based on the well-preserved historic architecture of parts of the Old Town.
Prehistory and Early History
Human settlements in the area around Kraków can be traced back to the Stone Age. Around the 8th century, a castle was built on a limestone hill by the Vistula, now known as Wawel Hill. In the 9th century, this was the main settlement area of the ancient Polish tribe of the Wislans (Wiślanie), who became part of the Great Moravian Empire around 870.
Middle Ages
The earliest written reference to the city is considered to be the travelogue of the Arab-Jewish merchant Ibrahim Ibn Jakub, dating from the year 965. At that time, Kraków lay within the territory ruled by Bohemia, until it was incorporated into the Polish state by Bolesław I the Brave (Bolesław I Chrobry) (c. 967–1025) and elevated to a bishopric the following year. In 1038, under Casimir (Kazimierz) I, Kraków replaced the city of Gniezno as the ruler’s seat. Following the division of the Polish realm into sub-principalities, as stipulated in the will of Bolesław III, Kraków was designated the capital in 1138. Under the principle of seniorate, Kraków, together with Lesser Poland, was allocated to the eldest son of the reigning monarch.
Between 1241 and 1287, Kraków was repeatedly conquered and sacked by the Golden Horde. In 1257, under Bolesław V (1226–1279), Kraków was granted a charter of town privileges under Magdeburg Law (modelled on that of Breslau/Wrocław).
Following protracted succession struggles for power in the principalities, Władysław I Ellenlang (Władysław I Łokietek, 1260/61–1333) was crowned King of a reunited Poland in 1320 at Wawel Cathedral in Kraków (Katedra wawelska, Bazylika archikatedralna św. Stanisława i św. Wacława). He thereby established Kraków’s status as a coronation site, which remained in force until 1734, and, following his death in 1333, also as the burial place of the Polish kings. His successor, Casimir III the Great (Kazimierz III Wielki, 1310–1370), founded the suburbs of Kazimierz (1335) and Kleparz (1366), as well as the Kraków Academy (1364).
On the cusp of the modern era, during the last third of the 15th century under the reign of Casimir IV, Kraków’s importance as the centre of humanism in Poland grew. During this period, the city served as a home to pioneers of humanism such as Filippo Buonaccorsi (known as Kallimach, 1437–1497) and Konrad Celtis (1459–1508), who founded the scholarly society ‘Sodalitas Litterarum Vistulana’ here, as a place to live and work.
Modern times
In the royal capital, humanist ideas and artistic trends drew on the style of the Italian Renaissance, a development that was significantly fostered under the reign of Sigismund the Old (Zygmunt I Stary, 1467–1548) and his wife Bona Sforza (1494–1557). This cultural and political golden age continued under Sigismund II Augustus (Zygmunt II August, 1520–1572). Krakow became the scene of a pivotal political event on 10 April 1525, when Duke Albrecht of Prussia (1490–1568) performed the ‘Prussian homage’ (hołd pruski) to King Sigismund I on the Ring.
Krakow remained the capital and the ruler’s seat until 1596 and 1607 respectively, when the residence was moved to Warsaw under Sigismund III Vasa (Zygmunt III Waza, 1566–1632). Even afterwards, ‘Krakow remained the site of the dynastic burial place, the coronations, a place of religious veneration, political and dynastic representation, and the venue for the most important dynastic festivals […] as well as the repository of the regalia’[4] and was therefore regarded as the unofficial capital.
However, the loss of these functions was accompanied, from around the mid-17th century, by a long-term marginalisation of the city. Furthermore, plague epidemics and looting by Swedish troops had a negative impact.
Following the First Partition of Poland–Lithuania in 1772, Kraków occupied a peripheral position within the remaining Polish territory, as it now bordered the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, created by Austria; on the opposite bank of the Vistula, Austria founded the town of Podgórze in 1784. Although the Kościuszko Uprising, directed against the partitioning powers, had broken out from Kraków as recently as March 1794, the city was assigned to the Austrian Crown Land of Galicia during the Third Partition of Poland–Lithuania in 1795. As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, Kraków became part of the short-lived Duchy of Warsaw in 1809. At the Congress of Vienna (1815), the city became the subject of a dispute between Austria, Prussia and Russia. The result of a compromise was the city-state of the Republic of Kraków (Rzeczpospolita Krakowska) or the Free City of Kraków (Wolne Miasto Kraków). Over the following 20 years, the area around Kraków ‘suffered the most turbulent fate of all Polish lands’[5], as the city was successively occupied by Polish, Russian, Austrian, Prussian and French troops. Following the November Uprising of 1830–1831, political and cultural freedoms were increasingly curtailed, as Kraków had supported the insurgents. In 1846, an uprising broke out in Kraków itself, but it was swiftly crushed and led to the end of the city’s partial autonomy, as Kraków was occupied by Austria, annexed and declared a fortress in 1850. In July 1853, the Kraków City Council was dissolved. Politically and economically, Kraków now remained in the shadow of the Galician capital, Lemberg/Ľviv/Lwów, until 1918; the latter gained in importance particularly following the Galician Statute of Autonomy, which was enacted as part of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. Krakow was granted the status of a statutory city (‘Provisional Municipal Statute for the Royal Capital of Krakow’, 1866), and modern municipal self-government began under the city council, which was re-elected for the first time on 1 August 1866.
Following the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, Józef Piłsudski (1867–1935), who had established a Polish military organisation in Galicia, set out from Kraków with the 1st Brigade of the Polish Legion to support the Austrian troops in their advance against Russia. Kraków itself was largely spared the ravages of war. On 31 October 1918, the Austrian troops stationed in the city were disarmed; Kraków thus became the first Polish city to be liberated from occupation by the former partitioning powers.
Contemporary History
When the poor economic situation of the Second Polish Republic came to a head in the autumn of 1923 with hyperinflation, strikes and demonstrations broke out in Kraków. Following the declaration of a general strike by the Polish Socialist Party, the military and police were deployed on 6 November 1923 against the workers, some of whom were armed. The unrest claimed over 32 lives in Kraków. Further strikes resulting in fatalities took place in 1936.
Following the capture of the city by the German Wehrmacht on 6 September 1939, Kraków became the capital of the General Government. The occupation policy was aimed at the Germanisation of the city (see below, Discourses and Controversies). During the so-called ‘Krakow Special Operation’ on 6 November 1939, around 180 Krakow professors and university staff were arrested at the Collegium Novum of Jagiellonian University, and most of them were deported to the Dachau and Sachsenhausen concentration camps. The plans of the Polish Home Army (Armia Krajowa, AK) for an uprising were constantly being revised and were ultimately abandoned following the suppression of the Warsaw Uprising.
The symbolic end of the German occupation was marked by the raising of the Polish flag by the citizens of Kraków on 18 January 1945. 1,900 Red Army soldiers lost their lives during the liberation of the city.
Following the territorial and administrative reorganisation of Poland after 1945, the Kraków Voivodeship was established in 1950. It emerged from the 1975 administrative reform – which remained in force until 1999 – in a significantly reduced form.
Economy, Transport and the Environment
As a crossroads of several long-distance trade routes, the town enjoyed a favourable location as early as the Middle Ages, as trade was possible in both the north-south and west-east directions. The promotion of salt mining in Wieliczka and Bochnia led to the economic rise of Kraków in the late Middle Ages, which was further bolstered by the granting of trade privileges and rights (e.g. a customs privilege in 1288 for trade between the Polish duchies, the right of staple for copper in 1306, and full right of staple in 1354). This was accompanied by a growing supraregional appeal of Kraków as a trading partner, as evidenced by its membership of the Hanseatic League from 1430 to 1478.
By the time of its annexation by Austria (1846), the city had indeed been losing economic significance for 200 years, yet its incorporation into the economically weak region of Galicia marked a further turning point for the city. Krakow came under Austrian customs jurisdiction (1847), was cut off from the previously lucrative transit trade – particularly with Silesia and Congress Poland – and was not designated as a transport hub for long-distance traffic during the expansion of the railway network. The financially powerful landed gentry drove forward the establishment of trading companies, but in doing so fostered Kraków’s proto-industrial character in the second half of the 19th century.
The local authority initially sought to address the economic restructuring following 1918 and the resulting budget deficit by municipalising enterprises; however, the establishment of the Provincial Agricultural Bank in 1925 and the Great Depression of 1929 deepened the local authority’s dependence on the state. Whilst the establishment of heavy industry appeared unfeasible financially, from the late 1920s until 1939 the tourism sector received special support with the aim of developing Kraków into the ‘tourist centre of Poland’[6].
From 1949, the W. I. Lenin Metallurgical Combine (Huta im. Lenina, known as Huta im. Sendzimira since 1989) was built in the new district of Nowa Huta; it is now part of ArcelorMittal Poland SA. In 1979, the state-owned enterprise employed almost 39,000 people. Since then, this figure has fallen steadily to around 3,000 (2013). The negative effects of the city’s economic structure being one-sidedly focused on heavy industry, at the expense of other industrial sectors and the service sector, are still felt today.
Society and Demographic Trends
| Year | Population |
|---|---|
| 1,400 | under 20,000 |
| 1,500 | 23,000 |
| 1,550 | 28,000 |
| 1,600 | 35,000[7] |
| 1815 | 23,500[8] |
| 1850 | 40,000 |
| 1869 | 50,000 |
| 1900 | 85,000[9] |
| 1915 | 185,000[10] |
| 1931 | 219,000[11] |
| 1939 | 259,000 |
| 1945 | 298,000 |
| 1950 | 344,000[12] |
| 1960 | 481,000 |
| 1970 | 590,000 |
| 1980 | 716,000 |
| 1990 | 751,000 |
| 2000 | 759,000 |
| 2014 | 762,000 |
The town charter granted in 1257 under German law led to an influx of settlers, primarily Germans and Jews. Consequently, in the 14th century, the population of Kraków consisted of 50 per cent Poles, 35 per cent Germans, 8 per cent Jews and 5 per cent Hungarians (others: 2 per cent).[13] Early modern Kraków society was thus multi-ethnic and multilingual – particularly in the 16th century, German, Dutch and Italian artists, architects and craftsmen – to the city, whilst Kraków’s status as a metropolis, with its political and cultural diversity, facilitated the rapid Polonisation of new residents.[14] Around 1600, the Kraków conurbation was home to 77 per cent Poles, 10 per cent Jews, 8 per cent Germans and 2 per cent Italians (others: 3 per cent).[15]
![St Mary’s Church on the Ring [Photo: Kai Witzlack-Makarevich].](/fileadmin/_processed/a/e/csm_Marienkirche_am_Ring_8021c2cfb0.jpg "2. St Mary’s Church 9155")
Until the mid-16th century, the majority of municipal offices were held by German-speaking citizens; however, from 1532 onwards, a royal decree required councillors to be proficient in both German and Polish. The Kraków court was the last of the municipal offices to abolish the use of the German language in 1600.[16] In 1537, the German-language sermons, which had until then been delivered in St Mary’s Church, were moved to the neighbouring St Barbara’s Church by royal decree.
The 17th and 18th centuries saw a very sharp decline in population, caused by epidemics and crises.
The annexation of Kraków by Austria led to several hundred Austrian civil servants settling in the city; in 1853, German was declared an official language. The ‘stagnation’[17] that affected the city after 1846 initially led to a decline in the population of around 10 per cent. Cholera epidemics in 1849 and 1855 claimed over 2,000 lives.[18]
Following the January Uprising of 1863–1864, an increasing number of Polish noble families from the other two partitioned territories, as well as those in exile in Galicia, settled in Kraków, preferring it to Lviv. The modernisation of the city also led to a significant increase in population. As the fortifications prevented the city from expanding spatially, the population density around 1900 was approximately 16,500 inhabitants per km², making Kraków the most densely populated city in the entire monarchy.[19] Furthermore, by 1905, some 6,000 soldiers were permanently stationed in the city.[20] Following the incorporation of the suburb of Podgórze, Kraków had a population of 185,000 in 1915 (excluding the garrison)[21] and continued to grow to 259,000 by 1939. Following the population losses and upheavals caused by the war, Kraków experienced dynamic demographic growth from 1945 onwards: the population has risen steadily from just under 300,000 (1945) to over 760,000 today.
History of religion
Krakow was Christianised earlier than other Polish cities, a development attributable to Bohemian influences. In the year 1000, the Diocese of Krakow became part of the new Polish Archdiocese of Gniezno. The murder of Bishop Stanislaus (Stanisław) of Kraków by Duke Bolesław II (1042–1081) in 1079 led to the cult surrounding Stanislaus, who was canonised in 1253 and declared the patron saint of Poland. The baptism of Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania (Władysław II Jagiełło), which took place there in 1386, contributed to the prestige of Kraków Cathedral.
Kraków in the 15th and 16th centuries was generally characterised by religious pluralism. However, Lutheran writings were banned in 1520 and were not circulated at the Kraków Academy even in later years. In 1539, Katarzyna Weigel, a citizen of Kraków, was burned at the stake for heresy – a singular event in the century of Polish tolerance. Krakow’s first Reformed place of worship, opened in 1572, was repeatedly plundered, damaged and finally destroyed in 1591. In the wake of the Counter-Reformation, the Reformist movements, which had still enjoyed broad support in the mid-16th century, lost much of their significance; in 1624, Protestants were denied the right to obtain citizenship.
Following the Partitions of Poland–Lithuania, the Diocese of Kraków was indeed restricted to the territory of the City-Republic of Kraków. However, in the late 1870s and 1880s, the Diocese of Kraków was elevated in status when Prelate Albin Dunajewski (1817–1894) was elevated to the rank of bishop and cardinal, and the diocese was placed under the direct authority of the Holy See. Many religious orders settled in Kraków, which had also served as a bastion of religious life in Poland during the period of the Partitions. In 1925, the Diocese of Kraków was elevated to an archdiocese.
Today, there are over 130 churches within the city limits, and the Sanctuary of Divine Mercy (Sanktuarium Bożego Miłosierdzia) in Kraków-Łagiewniki is one of the most important places of pilgrimage in Europe.
![Entrance to the 16th-century Remuh Cemetery on Szeroka Street in the Kazimierz district [Photo: Maria Luft].](/fileadmin/_processed/8/f/csm_Remuh-Friedhof_Eingang_0dcb5f7371.jpg "Remuh Cemetery Entrance IMG 3146 Aerial view")
Krakow is also a Jewish city. The district of Kazimierz – which was incorporated into the city around 1800 – came to hold particular significance as a centre of Jewish life.
Initially, the Jewish quarter of Kraków – where, particularly in the 14th century, many Jews from other parts of Europe settled thanks to the privileges granted by Casimir the Great – was situated around what is now ul. św. Anny (St Anne’s Street). When, following a city fire in 1495, Kraków’s Jews were accused of arson, King John I Albrecht (Jan I Olbracht, 1459–1501) ordered the resettlement of Kraków’s Jewish population to Kazimierz, but granted individual families the right to remain in Kraków, where they continued to have a synagogue at their disposal.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, too, as a result of pogroms in other parts of Europe, many Jewish refugees settled in Kazimierz, which developed into one of the intellectual centres of Eastern European Jewry and a ‘stronghold of Orthodoxy’.[22]
In the late 17th and 18th centuries, the difficult economic and political situation led to a significant decline in the number of Jewish inhabitants of Kraków and Kazimierz.
With the Patent of Toleration of 1789, Jews in Galicia were granted a wide range of rights. The aim was to promote the Germanisation of the Jewish population. In 1816, Jews in Kraków were granted admission to the lyceums and to university studies.[23] At that time, around 21 per cent of Kraków’s population were Jewish; by 1847, the figure had risen to around 32 per cent.[24] In 1867, the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy put an end to discrimination on religious grounds, and Galicia “became a haven for a broad spectrum of modern Jewish movements of a political and cultural nature and gave rise to an extremely vibrant press.”[25] For instance, the Kraków Reform Congregation, founded in 1864, was geared towards political participation, which was intended to secure its position both within the Jewish community and in non-Jewish society.
During the German occupation of the city, the Jewish ghetto was established in the Podgórze district (1941–1943). In 1941 and 1942, repeated mass deportations took place and hundreds of residents were shot on the spot. On 13 March 1943, the ghetto was liquidated. All remaining inhabitants were murdered on the spot or deported.
Parts of the ghetto wall have survived to this day, and the ghetto pharmacy on Heroes of the Ghetto Square (Plac Bohaterów Getta) has been a museum since 1983.
The Holocaust decimated the number of Kraków’s Jews from just under 60,000 to around 500,[26] many of whom emigrated after 1945 due to anti-Semitic riots and campaigns.
The Festival of Jewish Culture (Festiwal Kultury Żydowskiej w Krakowie), which has been held every summer in the Kazimierz district since 1988, is one of the most important events celebrating Jewish culture worldwide. In 1991, the ‘Judaica’ foundation was established, which opened the Centre for Jewish Culture (Fundacja Judaica – Centrum Kultury Żydowskiej) on ul. Meiselsa and is committed to the preservation of Jewish heritage and the dissemination of knowledge about the history and culture of Polish Jews at theJudaica Centre for Jewish Culture.
Military history
The first fortifications on Wawel were built as early as the time of the Vislan princes and were later expanded under Bolesław the Brave and, above all, during the 15th century.
Kraków played a key role in the military planning of the Habsburg Monarchy due to its proximity to the Russian border. The fortifications were expanded in particular between 1856 and 1866 under the Viennese engineer August Caboga, and again between 1881 and 1886. Wawel was used as barracks until 1905.
Towards the end of the 19th century, the fortifications were almost completely dismantled. Today, apart from the Florian Gate (Brama Floriańska) and the barbican built in 1499, only relics of the defensive fortifications remain; instead, a green belt (Planty) surrounds the centre.
Special cultural institutions
![Entrance to the museum in Oskar Schindler’s former enamelware factory [Photo: Kai Witzlack-Makarevich].](/fileadmin/_processed/4/8/csm_Eingang_zum_Museum_in_der_ehemaligen_Emaillewarenfabrik_von_Oskar_Schindler_fd8c834186.jpg)
![Juliusz Słowacki Theatre, Kraków [Photo: Kai Witzlack-Makarevich].](/fileadmin/_processed/1/3/csm_Juliusz_Slowacki-Theater_40a8dfbb93.jpg "Juliusz Słowacki Theatre, Kraków")
The National Museum in Kraków (Muzeum Narodowe w Krakowie) opened in 1879 as the first museum in which a partitioned Poland could present itself as a nation. Today it is housed in a magnificent building, the construction of which began in the interwar period and was not completed until the late 1980s. Since 1951, the Czartoryski Museum (Muzeum Książąt Czartoryskich), which has existed since 1796, has been part of the National Museum, as has the Europeum – Centre for European Culture (Europeum – Ośrodek Kultury Europejskiej).
The museum beneath the Main Market Square (Podziemia Rynku) is Poland’s largest underground museum. The history of the Polish Home Army (Armia Krajowa) is chronicled in the museum of the same name.
The Historical Museum of the City of Kraków (Muzeum Historyczne Miasta Krakowa) comprises 14 sites across the city, including the former ‘German Enamelware Factory’ (1908–1974) in the Podgórze district (Oskar Schindler’s Enamel Factory, since 2010). The permanent exhibition depicts Kraków during the German occupation from 1939 to 1945. The Museum of Contemporary Art (Muzeum Sztuki Współczesnej w Krakowie) opened in the neighbouring building in 2011. The Historical Museum also includes Kościuszko Mound (Kopiec Kościuszki), the Town Hall Tower (Wieża Ratuszowa), the Old Synagogue (Synagoga Stara) and the Museum of the History of the Nowa Huta District (Dzieje Nowej Huty). It is also home to the Museum of the People’s Republic of Poland (Muzeum PRL-u), which is dedicated to the history of Poland from 1944 until the political transition at the end of the 1980s.
Among the city’s numerous theatres and concert halls, the Juliusz Słowacki Theatre (Teatr im. Juliusza Słowackiego) holds a special place. When it opened in October 1893, it was Kraków’s first electrified building, heralding the start of a new, modern phase in the city’s development.
In 2000, Kraków was the European Capital of Culture. In 2016, the city hosted World Youth Day.
Science
![Collegium Novum at Jagiellonian University [Photo: Kai Witzlack-Makarevich].](/fileadmin/_processed/c/3/csm_Collegium_Novum_der_Jagiellonen-Universitaet_0aaa9521ab.jpg)
Krakow is one of Poland’s most important centres of learning.
The Jagiellonian University (Uniwersytet Jagielloński) was founded as the Kraków Academy under Casimir the Great as early as 1364, making it the oldest university in Central Europe after Charles University in Prague. Initially, it comprised three Schools – Law, Medicine and Philosophy – but fell into decline following Casimir’s death, until it was re-established in 1400 thanks to a foundation from the late Queen Hedwig (Jadwiga, 1373–1399) and expanded to include a School of Theology. In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, the Kraków Academy enjoyed a golden age, particularly the School of Mathematics and Astronomy, which was also attended by Nicolaus Copernicus (Mikołaj Kopernik, 1473–1543, enrolled in 1491). At that time, around half of the students came from abroad; however, as the Academy continued to adhere to, or even revert to, scholasticism, it lost this influx of students. A reform of the academy’s operations took place at the end of the 18th century under Hugo Kołłątaj (1750–1812), who introduced Polish as the language of instruction there. The university has borne its present name since 1817.
The establishment of educational institutions was driven forward during the period of Galician autonomy by the financially powerful landed gentry. For example, the Kraków Scientific Society (Polska Akademia Umiejętności), which was reopened in 1873 as the Academy of Sciences, as well as the founding of the Polish School Association in 1879, were funded by private endowments. In the case of Jagiellonian University, scholarships and chairs were also established through donations from Poles living in exile and in the other partitioned territories, thereby compensating for the deficient educational policy in Vienna.
![Fig. Kraków State Library, opening programme 1941 [Photo: Kai Witzlack-Makarevich].](/fileadmin/_processed/0/e/csm_Staatsbibliothek_Krakau_Eroeffnungsprogramm_6c7fda7774.jpg "Kraków State Library Opening Programme")
Under German occupation, the Jagiellonian University was closed, as were other educational institutions; from 1942, however, courses were organised clandestinely.
The construction of the new Jagiellonian Library (Biblioteka Jagiellońska), which had begun in 1931, was only completed under German occupation and the building was opened on 4 April 1941 as the ‘Kraków State Library’. It was thus one of the four German state libraries in the General Government and was intended, as a ‘bulwark of German intellectual endeavour’[27], to form the foundation for the planned German University of Kraków.
In 1945, regular teaching resumed at Jagiellonian University.
Other higher education institutions of national significance currently include the Academy of Mining and Metallurgy (Akademia Górniczo-Hutnicza), the University of Agriculture (Uniwersytet Rolniczy), the Kraków University of Technology (Politechnika Krakowska), the University of Economics (Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny) and the Pedagogical University (Uniwersytet Pedagogiczny), as well as the Academy of Fine Arts (Akademia Sztuk Pięknych), the Academy of Music (Akademia Muzyczna), the Academy of Physical Education (Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego), the State Higher School of Theatre and Drama (Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Teatralna), the Józef Tischner European University (Wyższa Szkoła Europejska im. Ks. Józefa Tischnera) and the Pontifical University of John Paul II (Uniwersytet Papieski Jana Pawła II, Faculty of Theology in Tarnów).
In the 2013/2014 academic year, 184,371 students were enrolled at Kraków’s 23 universities and higher education institutions.[28]
Architecture and Urban Development
![Wawel [Photo: Kai Witzlack-Makarevich].](/fileadmin/_processed/0/e/csm_Wawel_c4c5ac58a3.jpg "Wawel")
Before the town was granted its charter in 1257, Wawel Hill – on which stone fortifications and religious buildings had already been erected under Bolesław the Brave – formed the heart of the settlement. Most of its Romanesque buildings were destroyed during the attack by the Golden Horde in 1241 and the resulting fire, which only Wawel Castle and St Andrew’s Church (Kościół św. Andrzeja) survived. As part of the systematic reconstruction of the city, the Old Town, laid out in a grid pattern, began to take shape from 1257 onwards, with the 40,000 m² square Main Market (Ring, Rynek) at its centre. Individual buildings and street layouts were integrated into the new layout without any change to their orientation, as can still be seen today, for example, in the Gothic St Mary’s Church (Kościół Mariacki) and the course of ul. Grodzka. Other surviving Gothic structures include the Town Hall Tower, parts of the Collegium Maius and Wawel Cathedral, which was extended in the 14th century. The Cloth Hall (Sukiennice) was also built in the 14th century, but following a fire in the mid-16th century, it was rebuilt in the Renaissance style and then in the Neo-Gothic style between 1875 and 1878. A key example of late Gothic art is the Altar of St Mary in St Mary’s Church, commissioned by the citizens of Kraków and created between 1477 and 1489 by the Nuremberg sculptor Veit Stoß (Wit Stwosz, 1447–1533) between 1477 and 1489.
In the 16th century, Italian architects shaped the city’s appearance. The Royal Castle on Wawel Hill, which had been burnt down in 1499, was rebuilt by Francesco Fiorentino (d. 1516) and Bartolomeo Berrecci (d. 1537) as a Renaissance palace with an arcaded courtyard. Berrecci also built the Sigismund Chapel (Kaplica Zygmuntowska) in the Florentine Renaissance style. In 1520, the Sigismund Bell – for a long time the largest church bell in Poland – was installed in Wawel Cathedral.
Among the Baroque buildings erected in the following century are the Church of St Peter and St Paul (Kościół św. Piotra i Pawła) and St Anne’s Church (Kościół św. Anny).
A severe fire in July 1850 destroyed part of the city centre and numerous artistic monuments. After 1850, the construction of several barracks reinforced the character of Kraków as a garrison town. In the late 19th century, on the other hand, the influx of Polish noble families had a defining influence, leading to the construction of urban palaces even outside the city centre, for example in the districts of Nowy Świat, Piasek and Wesoła. Churches, monuments and burial sites (e.g. at Rakowice Cemetery) were also built p.p. or renovated at the turn of the century using funds from private endowments. In 1889, the doctor Henryk Jordan (1842–1907) created a city park, Jordan Park (Park im. Henryka Jordana).
The ‘final departure from the concept of a pre-industrial town and the transition to the stage of urban development’[29] was brought about by the ‘Greater Kraków’ land-use rezoning and development plan’, which was conceived between 1909 and 1915 under Mayor Juliusz Leo (1861–1918) and implemented after 1918. Through various annexations, the city’s area expanded many times over.
To this day, Kraków’s late Historicist architecture remains strongly reminiscent of the model set by the so-called Vienna School. Many Kraków architects had studied in Vienna. The Kraków Renaissance served to preserve Kraków’s tradition as a bastion of Polishness; it was an expression of the prevailing desire at the time to forge a distinct architectural identity. During the interwar period, numerous buildings were erected in the style of the so-called Kraków School, which combined historicism and modernism.
The city’s architectural ensemble survived the Second World War almost unscathed. At the outbreak of the war, the German Luftwaffe had bombed only the main railway station, industrial plants and the airport, and the city had been surrendered without a fight on 6 September 1939 out of consideration for its cultural monuments. Before its retreat in 1945, the Wehrmacht blew up the three bridges over the Vistula. During the Red Army’s capture of the city, around 450 buildings were destroyed or damaged.
After the Second World War, the socialist planned city of Nowa Huta was built in the east of the city and incorporated into Warsaw in 1951. Alongside the reconstruction of Warsaw, this was the largest construction project in post-war Poland. Today, around 204,000 people live there.[30] Ironically, it was this very socialist model town that became the centre of the opposition movement in Kraków in the 1980s. This movement received a significant boost, particularly following Pope John Paul II’s visit to Nowa Huta on 9 June 1979.
Today, Kraków has around 7,000 historic buildings, of which some 1,100 are listed. These include Villa Decius (Willa Decjusz) in the Wola Justowska district, which Karl Dedecius (1921–2016) had renovated in the 1990s to create a humanist forum for Europe and to provide a venue for the promotion of German-Polish relations.
Since 1978, Kraków’s Old Town and Wawel have been on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
History of Books and Printing
Krakow is ‘the cradle of typography’[31] in Poland and developed into an early modern centre of communication in Eastern Central Europe. Book printing became firmly established there at the beginning of the 16th century; among the most important printers of this period were Johann Haller (c. 1467–1525), Florian Ungler (d. 1536), Hieronymus Vietor (c. 1480–1546/7) and Mathias Scharffenberg (d. 1547), all of whom were active in Kraków.[32] Raj duszny (Paradise of the Soul) by Biernat of Lublin (died after 1529), believed to be the first book printed entirely in Polish, was published in 1513. The *Merkuriusz Polski Ordynaryjny*, Poland’s first regularly published newspaper, appeared in Kraków in 1661.
Against the backdrop of political debates concerning the future of Poland, ideological circles emerged in Kraków during the last quarter of the 19th century, characterised by a high level of publishing activity, which gave rise to newspapers such as *Czas*, *Przegląd Polski*, *Kraj* and *Naprzód *.
Literature and Art
Owing to its significance for Polish literature, Kraków is also referred to as the country’s ‘literary stronghold’[33].
In 1897, the artists’ group Młoda Polska (Young Poland) founded the first pan-Polish art organisation under the name Sztuka (The Art), which maintained links with the European avant-garde scene, particularly through the writer Stanisław Przybyszewski (1868–1927), who was based in Kraków from 1898 to 1901. Other important figures in Kraków’s bohemian scene at the turn of the century included the painter and poet Stanisław Wyspiański (1869–1907), whose play *The Wedding* (Wesele) is set in the village of Bronowice near Kraków, the history painter Jan Matejko (1838–1893), the poet and playwright Lucjan Rydel (1870–1918), and the doctor, translator and satirist Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński (1874–1941).
Around 1920, the Futurists—who believed in progress and broke with Romantic traditions—formed in Kraków. Influenced by Futurism, representatives of the visual and performing arts, literature and philosophy came together in search of new forms of expression under the founder Leon Chwistek (1884–1944) as the ‘Krakow Formists’. Among the meeting places for Kraków’s artists of this period was the Kossakówka, the residence of the Kossak family, whose daughters Maria Pawlikowska-Jasnorzewska (1891–1945) and Magdalena Samozwaniec (1894–1972) made a name for themselves as a poet and a satirist respectively. The Kraków avant-garde centred on Tadeusz Peiper (1891–1969) and his journal *Zwrotnica* also had a formative influence on Polish literature during the interwar period.
During the Polish People’s Republic, the so-called Writers’ House (Dom Literatów) on ul. Krupnicza became a centre of the Kraków literary scene. Its residents included Wisława Szymborska (1923–2012) and Czesław Miłosz (1911–2004).
In 1993, Steven Spielberg filmed *Schindler’s List* in Kraków at the original locations, based on the novel of the same name by Thomas Keneally.
![Adam Mickiewicz monument on the Ring [Photo: Kai Witzlack-Makarevich].](/fileadmin/_processed/1/3/csm_Adam_Mickiewicz-Denkmal_am_Ring_9652fbb0fd.jpg "Adam Mickiewicz Monument on the Ring")
In the 19th century, Kraków became ‘the focal point of national memory’. In the wake of the historical and cultural revival influenced by Romanticism, the ‘royal residence from the heyday of the Polish monarchy […] became the focus of national aspirations’.[34]
To this day, the past remains alive and ever-present in Kraków. The city claims the role of the country’s cultural leader in contrast to the economic and political centre of Warsaw, and sees itself as a central site of national remembrance. Thus, almost all Polish kings, the national poet Adam Mickiewicz (1798–1855) and the founder of the Polish state, Józef Piłsudski, found their final resting place at Wawel. The funeral of President Lech Kaczyński (1949–2010), who died in an accident in 2010, further emphasised Wawel’s role as a national site of remembrance in more recent times. The memorial on Kościuszko Hill, which was erected between 1820 and 1823 in honour of the Polish national hero Tadeusz Kościuszko (1746–1817), as well as the Mickiewicz monument on the Main Market Square, unveiled in 1898.
The commemoration of the Battle of Tannenberg (Bitwa pod Grunwaldem) in 1410 plays a central role in the city’s discourse on remembrance. For the unveiling of the monument in 1910, 150,000 Poles travelled from all the partitioned territories and from exile, though no Lithuanians were present. The monument was demolished by the German occupiers during the Second World War and was not fully restored until 2010.
To this day, a short, abruptly cut-off trumpet fanfare (‘Hejnał’) sounds every hour from the tower of St Mary’s Church, commemorating the attacks by the Golden Horde on the city of Kraków: According to legend, the tower trumpeter, whose fanfare was intended to warn the inhabitants of the approaching Mongols, was struck by an arrow fired by the attackers whilst playing, but managed to prevent the city from falling. The Kraków Lajkonik, an armed Tatar horseman, also commemorates the siege; like the Kraków Christmas nativity scene, it has been included in the Polish Register of Intangible Cultural Heritage.
4. Discourses and controversies
![Poster for the Veit Stoß exhibition organised by the Institute for German Labour in the East, May 1941, at the museum in Schindler’s factory [Photo: Kai Witzlack-Makarevich].](/fileadmin/_processed/d/7/csm_Veit_Stoss_Ausstellung_Mai_1941_f90f01eda8.jpg "Veit Stoss Exhibition, May 1941")
Under German occupation, Kraków was to be transformed into a model German city in the East. The city’s medieval German heritage, which the Nazi leadership claimed as its own, played a particularly important role in this. The focus was on the granting of Magdeburg rights in 1257. According to the charter, the city was not permitted to admit any Poles as citizens. This tied in with the so-called ‘colonisation theory’ developed around 1900, which denied that Polish towns had evolved prior to the so-called‘German eastward settlement’and instead proclaimed a ‘civilisational leap’ brought about by German ‘bearers of culture’. This was said to apply in particular to Kraków. Nazi accounts then claimed that every German immediately felt as though they were on German soil there, for ‘the language of the stones in the old town sounds authentically German[,] […] everything foreign […] lies merely as a thin veneer over the face of a German city.”[35] This narrative was to be given scientific backing by the‘Institute for German Eastern Work’, established in 1940 in the buildings of the dissolved Jagiellonian University, which, in addition to its extensive publishing activities, organised a major exhibition on Veit Stoss. The Kraków-based ‘Buchverlag Deutscher Osten’ (German East Publishing House) produced numerous publications to familiarise Germans with the ‘regained East’ and, above all, with Kraków. Like Luxembourg and Strasbourg, Kraków was included in the ‘Redevelopment of German Cities’ programme in 1940. The Reich Ministry of the Interior commissioned the renowned Leipzig architect Hubert Ritter (1886–1967) to draw up a master plan for Kraków.
![A 1940 development plan for the redevelopment of Kraków, on display at the museum in Schindler’s Factory [Photo: Kai Witzlack-Makarevich].](/fileadmin/_processed/7/6/csm_Bebauungsplan_von_1940_zur_Neugestaltung_Krakaus_afe10be245.jpg)
In Polish accounts, the theory that the town has German origins is rejected on the grounds that its settlement history dates back to the 7th century BC.
The uprising of the German citizenry (also known as the Revolt of Vogt Albert) against Władysław Ellenlang, who held the Polish seniorate, led in 1312 to the banishment of a large proportion of the German citizens and a number of executions. Errors in the pronunciation of Polish words were used to identify German residents. However, the disputes were primarily about the assertion of economic interests and municipal privileges. The one-sided interpretation of this as a German uprising against the Polish royal house is, from today’s perspective, a retrospective oversimplification.[36] Despite numerous publications, research into these events remains an unfulfilled task.[37]
In the historical consciousness of Poles, Kraków is regarded, in comparison with Warsaw, as a city that played only a limited part in the struggle against the German occupiers during the Second World War. However, this statement could also be made of any other Polish city.[38]
Bibliography
- Jochen August (ed.): ‘Special Operation Kraków’. The arrest of Kraków’s academics on 6 November 1939. Hamburg 1997.
- Klemens Bąkowski: *Historya Krakowa w zarysie* [An Outline of the History of Kraków]. Kraków 1898 (Biblioteka krakowska 6).
- Wojciech Bałus: Kraków between Tradition and Modernity. On the History of Architecture and Public Green Spaces in the 19th Century. Stuttgart 2003 (Research on the History and Culture of Eastern Central Europe 18).
- Janina Bieniarzówna, Jan Małecki, Jerzy Wyrozumski et al.: *Dzieje Krakowa* [History of Kraków]. 6 vols. Kraków 1992–2004.
- Marina Dmitrieva, Karen Lambrecht (eds.): Kraków, Prague and Vienna. The Roles of Metropolises in the Early Modern State. Stuttgart 2000 (Research in the History and Culture of Eastern Central Europe 10).
- Britta Dümpelmann: Veit Stoß and the Kraków Altarpiece of the Virgin Mary. Media Approaches, Media Perspectives. Zurich 2012 (Media Change – Media Transition – Media Knowledge, Vol. 24).
- Stanisław Dziedzic: Kraków to jest wielka rzecz [Krakow, That Is a Great Thing]. Kraków 2012.
- Marta Kijowska: Kraków. A Stroll Through a City of Poets. Munich 2005.
- Hanna Kozińska-Witt: Kraków in Warsaw’s Long Shadow. Rivalries in the Polish Urban Landscape 1900–1939. Stuttgart 2008 (Research on the History and Culture of Eastern Central Europe 30).
- Gabriele Lesser: Life as if. The Kraków Underground University during the Second World War. ²Cologne 1990.
- Andrea Löw, Markus Roth: Jews in Kraków under German Occupation 1939–1945. Göttingen 2011.
- Eduard Mühle (ed.): Breslau and Kraków in the High and Late Middle Ages. Urban Form, Housing, Lifestyle. Cologne et al. 2014 (Urban Research. Publications of the Institute for Comparative Urban History in Münster 87).
- Jacek Purchla: The Urban Development of Kraków. In: Eve Blau, Monika Platzer (eds.): The Myth of the Metropolis. Architecture and Urban Design in Central Europe 1890–1937. Munich 1999, pp. 149–153.
- Jacek Purchla: Kraków. At the Heart of Europe. Kraków 2003.
- Marcin Starzyński: Medieval Kraków. The City Council within the Power Structure of the Polish Metropolis. Cologne et al. 2015 (Urban Research. Publications of the Institute for Comparative Urban History in Münster 92).
- Beate Störtkuhl: Art and Nation: Kraków’s Development into the Cultural Capital of Partitioned Poland in the Late Habsburg Monarchy. In: Gun-Britt Kohler, Rainer Grübel, Hans Henning Hahn (eds.): The Habsburgs and the Slavs. Frankfurt am Main 2008 (Central Europe – Eastern Europe. Oldenburg Contributions to the Culture and History of East-Central Europe 10), pp. 353–384.
- Thomas Urban: From Kraków to Gdańsk. A Journey through German–Polish History. Munich 2000.
- Hanna Zaremska: Jews in Medieval Poland and the Kraków Jewish Community. Osnabrück 2013 (Klio in Poland 17).
- Barbara Zbroja: The Architecture of Interwar Kraków 1918–1939. Buildings, People, History. Kraków 2013.
Web links
- www.uj.edu.pl/ (Jagiellonian University, Kraków)
- www.slowacki.krakow.pl (Słowacki Theatre)
- kopieckosciuszki.pl/ (Kościuszko Hill. Museum and viewing platform)
- www.mhk.pl/oddzialy/fabryka-schindlera (Museum in Oskar Schindler’s former enamelware factory)
- www.jewishfestival.pl/pl/ (Jewish Cultural Festival)
- szlakmodernizmu.pl/ (Krakow Modernism)
- www.herder-institut.de/bildkatalog/wikidata/Q31487 (Images of Kraków/Kraków from the image archive of the Herder Institute, Marburg)
Notes
[1] Cf. Eduard Mühle (ed.): *Die Chronik der Polen des Magisters Vincentius*. Darmstadt 2014 (Selected Sources on Medieval History 48), p. 99.
[12 Kazimierz Rymut: Kraków. In: Ibid. (ed.): Nazwy miejscowe Polski [Place Names of Poland]. Vol. 5: Ko–Ky. Kraków 2003, pp. 273ff.
[3] City of Kraków: Kraków in Figures 2014. Kraków 2015 (online, last accessed: 26 February 2016).
[4] Andrea Langer: ‘Residential Function – Change of Residence: Kraków and Ujazdów/Warsaw in the Time of Bona Sforza and Anna Jagiellonka’. In: Dmitrieva, Lambrecht (eds.): Kraków, Prague and Vienna, pp. 59–75, here p. 61. See also Walter Leitsch: When and why did Kraków lose its status as a royal capital? In: Ibid., Stanisław Trawkowski (ed.): Poland and Austria in the 17th Century. Vienna 1999 (Vienna Archive for the History of the Slavs and Eastern Europe 18), pp. 232–260.
[5] M[arceli] Szarota: The Last Days of the Republic of Kraków. Wrocław 1911, p. 12.
[6] Kozińska-Witt: Kraków in Warsaw’s Long Shadow, p. 117.
[7] For data covering the period 1400–1600, see Leszek Belzyt: Kraków and Prague between the 14th and 17th Centuries. Comparative Studies on the Social, Cultural and Economic History of East-Central European Metropolises. Toruń 2003, p. 41. Belzyt bases these figures on his own calculations, some of which (for example, around 1600) are slightly higher than those given elsewhere.
[8] Szarota: The Last Days (note 5), p. 10.
[9] Juliusz Demel: Kraków at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries against the backdrop of the expansion and incorporation of suburbs and suburban municipalities (1867–1945 [Krakow at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries against the backdrop of the growth and incorporation of suburbs and suburban municipalities] In: Jan Dąbrowski (ed.): Kraków. Studies on Urban Development [Krakow. Studies on Urban Development]. Kraków 1957, pp. 287–351, here p. 307.
[10] Jacek Purchla: Vienna, Kraków and Lviv on their path to modernity. In: Ibid., Wolfgang Kos, Żanna Komar, Monika Rydiger, Werner Michael Schwarz (eds.): The Myth of Galicia. Vienna 2015, pp. 137–145, here p. 141.
[11] For the data for 1931 and 1939, see *Mały rocznik statystyczny 1939* [Small Statistical Yearbook 1939] published by the Główny Urząd Statystyczny, p. 36: mbc.cyfrowemazowsze.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id=14498&from=publication (accessed 14 September 2016).
[12] For data after 1950, see Rocznik Demograficzny 2014 [Demographic Yearbook of Poland 2014] published by the Główny Urząd Statystyczny: stat.gov.pl/obszary-tematyczne/roczniki-statystyczne/roczniki-statystyczne/rocznik-demograficzny-2014,3,8.html (accessed 10 August 2016).
[13] Belzyt: Kraków and Prague (note 7), p. 40.
[14] Cf. Karin Friedrich: ‘Urban Patriotism and National Plurality’. In: Dmitrieva, Lambrecht (eds.): Kraków, Prague and Vienna, pp. 143–161.
[15] Belzyt: Kraków and Prague (note 7), p. 40.
[16] See ibid., p. 123.
[17] Jacek Purchla: Kraków under Austrian Rule 1846–1918. Factors in its Development. Vienna et al. 1993, p. 21.
[18] Ibid.
[19] Purchla: Vienna, Kraków and Lviv (note 10), p. 141.
[20] Purchla: Kraków under Austrian Rule (note 17), pp. 107ff.
[21] Purchla: Vienna, Kraków and Lviv (note 10), p. 141.
[22] Hanna Kozińska-Witt: The Kraków Jewish Reform Congregation 1864–1874. Frankfurt am Main 1999 (Europäische Hochschulschriften 818), pp. 29ff.
[23] Cf. ibid., p. 38.
[24] Purchla: Kraków: At the Heart of Europe, p. 185.
[25] Joshua Shanes: The Genesis of a Nation: Galician Jewry under Austrian Rule 1772–1918. In: Purchla et al. (eds.): The Myth of Galicia, pp. 153–159, here p. 155.
[26] Anna Cichopek: The Cracow Pogrom of August 1945. In: Joshua D. Zimmerman (ed.): *Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath*. New Brunswick 2003, pp. 221–239, here p. 226.
[27] Gustav Abb: Lecture by the Head of the Central Administration of the Libraries of the General Government. In: Kraków State Library. Programme of the ceremonial opening. Kraków 1941, pp. 7–18, here p. 18.
[28] City of Kraków: Kraków in Figures 2014 (note 3).
[29] Purchla: Vienna, Kraków and Lviv (note 10), p. 141.
[30] City of Kraków: Kraków in Figures 2014 (note 3).
[31] Jan Pirożyński: Kraków and Prague as Centres of Book Printing in the 15th and 16th Centuries. An Attempt at a Comparison. In: Dmitrieva, Lambrecht (eds.): Kraków, Prague and Vienna, pp. 223–235, here p. 224.
[32] Alodia Kawecka-Gryczowa (ed.): Printers of Old Poland from the 15th to the 18th Century. Vol. 1: Małopolska [Lesser Poland]. Part 1: The 15th–16th Centuries. Wrocław et al. 1983.
[33] Kijowska: Kraków, p. 10.
[34] Störtkuhl: Art and Nation, pp. 354ff.
[35] Heinrich Kurtz: Kraków. Portrait of a German City in the East. Bayreuth 1944, p. 5.
[36] Cf. Stanisław Szczur: Historia Polski. Średniowiecze [History of Poland. The Middle Ages]. Kraków 2002, pp. 339ff.
[37] Cf. Anna Grabowska: ‘Bunt wójta Alberta w historiografii polskiej’ [The Revolt of Bailiff Albert in Polish Historiography]. In: Jerzy Rajman (ed.): Albert the Bailiff’s Revolt. Kraków and Opole in their mutual relations in the 14th century [Albert the Bailiff’s Revolt. Relations between Kraków and Opole in the 14th Century]. Kraków 2013 (Annales Academiae Paedagogicae Cracoviensis, Studia Historica 13), pp. 19–31, here p. 31.
[38] Cf. Grzegorz Jeżowski: Polskie Państwo Podziemne [The Polish Underground State]. In: Monika Bednarek, Edyta Gawron, Grzegorz Jeżowski, Barbara Zbroja, Katarzyna Zimmerer: Kraków – czas okupacji 1939–1945 [Kraków during the Occupation 1939–1945]. Kraków 2010, pp. 362–391, here p. 387.
Citation
Saskia Metan, Kai Witzlack-Makarevich: Kraków. In: Online Encyclopaedia on the Culture and History of Germans in Eastern Europe, 2016. URL: ome-lexikon.uni-oldenburg.de/p32299 (as at 21 February 2022).
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