Vienna
Vienna
Names in other languages
English: Vienna; Italian: Vienna; French: Vienne; Czech: Vídeň; Slovak: Viedeň; Hungarian: Bécs; Slovenian: Dunaj; Polish: Wiedeń
Etymology
The name is derived from the river of the same name, ‘Wenia’ (now Vienna), which is first mentioned in the Salzburg Annals in the year 881.
Location
Vienna lies at 48° 12′ north latitude and 16° 22′ east longitude, approximately 35 km west of the Austrian border with Slovakia.
Topography
The city borders the northernmost foothills of the Eastern Alps (the Vienna Woods) and lies at the transition to the Pannonian Plain on the Danube.
Common symbolism
The coat of arms consists of a red shield crossed by a white cross. It appears in the centre of the town’s flag, which consists of an upper red and a lower white horizontal bar, each occupying an equal portion of the flag.
Nicknames
In the Viennese dialect, the city is called ‘Wean’.
‘Golden Apple of the Germans’ is an Ottoman term for Vienna, derived from the Imperial Apple and Christian symbols.
Prehistory and Early History
One of the most important archaeological sites indicating settlement during the Neolithic period is the radiolarite quarry in Vienna’s 23rd district, where chert was mined. The settlements in the Vienna area benefited from increased trade. The largest settlement of the Late Iron Age, which expanded further during the La Tène period, has been identified on the Leopoldsberg.
In the first century AD, the Vienna area was settled by the Romans, who established the military camp of Vindobona (‘Vindo’s estate’) in the 1st municipal district to protect the borders and expanded it into a legionary camp under Emperor Domitian (51–96 AD, reigned from 81). From the 3rd century AD onwards, evidence of a Roman civilian town can be found in the area of the 3rd municipal district.
Middle Ages
Following the collapse of the Roman Empire and the period of the Migration Period, it was not until the High Middle Ages that larger settlements were established in the Vienna area.[1]
Burial grounds within the present-day city limits bear witness to the Avars’ rule over the Vienna region from the 7th century until its conquest by Charlemagne (d. 814) at the end of the 8th century. In 907, the Vienna region came under Hungarian rule. Following Emperor Otto I’s (912–973) victory over the Hungarians in 955, the ‘marcha orientalis’ ( Latin for ‘Eastern March’) was established in the Danube region, and in the years that followed its borders shifted ever further eastwards.
During the 11th century, Vienna grew in importance as an administrative centre and market town. In 1156, Henry II of the House of Babenberg (1107–1177) received the Duchy of Austria as a fief from Emperor Frederick I (1122–1190) as compensation for the loss of Bavaria. The stability of the following decades led to rapid expansion of the territory. Following the death of the last Babenberg, Frederick II (1211–1246), and Emperor Frederick II (1194–1250), Austria submitted to Ottokar Přemysl (1232–1278) of Bohemia in 1251. In 1275, following a siege of Vienna by Rudolf of Habsburg (1218–1291), he was forced to relinquish his claims to the city. In the 14th century, the city experienced a renewed upswing, which continued under Rudolf IV (1339–1365). Following the death of Duke Albrecht II (1397–1439), disputes over the succession arose, leading to a civil war in Vienna in the years that followed. This conflict was followed by further wars, leading to the siege of Vienna in 1477 and its conquest in 1485 by the Hungarian King Matthias Corvinus (1443–1490). Following his death, the city returned to Habsburg control.
Modern times
The reign of Ferdinand I (1503–1564, Archduke from 1521) was marked by the threat posed by the Ottoman Empire, which reached its first peak in 1529 with the unsuccessful siege of Vienna. The city had been the seat of the imperial central authorities since 1527 and of the Lower Austrian Provincial Assembly since 1510. The Imperial Court Council and the Imperial Court Chancellery were established in 1556 and were to remain in existence until the end of the Holy Roman Empire (1806). During the Thirty Years’ War, part of the suburbs was plundered twice (1619, 1645) by Protestant troops. The years between 1671 and 1711 were marked by the Magnates’ Conspiracy and the uprising led by Prince Franz II Rákóczi (1676–1735). This period also saw the second Turkish siege of Vienna, which ended in September 1683 with the Battle of Kahlenberg. Vienna was successfully defended by a Christian relief army led by the Polish King John III Sobieski (1629–1696). The subsequent military successes of the Habsburg troops in Hungary brought a new period of prosperity to Vienna, which was reflected, amongst other things, in a boom in construction. In the 18th century, Vienna became a centre of international diplomacy. A large number of peace treaties were negotiated here. During the War of the Third Coalition, French troops occupied the city in 1805, before it was once again turned into a theatre of war in 1809. Following the Coalition’s victory over France, the Congress of Vienna, held in 1814–15, reordered Europe; this new order was to remain largely in place until the First World War and shaped the map of Eastern Central Europe by reducing Poland to what was known as ‘Congress Poland’. The Revolution of 1848 led to a social upheaval and brought about a new system of government in the Danube Monarchy. From 1857 onwards, there was a further building boom and architectural changes to the cityscape. In 1873, the fifth World’s Fair took place in Vienna.
Contemporary History
Following the end of the First World War, which had brought malnutrition and hardship to the city’s population, riots broke out due to the poor supply situation. The autumn of 1918 marked a significant turning point[1] with the end of the Habsburg Monarchy. The years of the First Republic (1918–1938) were characterised by unfavourable economic conditions. On the political front, Austro-Marxism gained influence, and Vienna became a prime example of social democratic governance. This changed in 1934, when the dissolution of parliament led to civil war and the establishment of the corporative state. In 1938, the city was annexed by the German Reich. Under National Socialist rule, Jews and various political and social groups were persecuted and deported. In the final years of the Second World War, the city suffered considerable destruction. From 1945 to 1955, the city was divided amongst the four Allied occupying powers. Food supplies could only be secured to an inadequate extent. From 1948, Austria received support from the Marshall Plan, which greatly facilitated reconstruction. In 1955, Austria committed itself to neutrality; it has been a member of the European Union since 1995.
Administration
The oldest charter granting Viennese city rights was issued on 18 October 1221. Through this, the sovereign partially transferred the exercise of his sovereign rights to the civic community. The City Council formed the highest body of the municipal administration. The office of magister civium (mayor) is first mentioned in 1282. In 1396, the so-called ‘Council Election Privilege’ was issued. This stipulated that the City Council should be composed in equal parts of citizens, merchants and craftsmen. In 1526, the town charter was revised. In 1783, the Josephine municipal reform fundamentally changed the city’s administration. This remained in force until the mid-19th century, before the events of 1848 led to a new Municipal Act and a new Municipal Code. After 1945, the Viennese city administration was led by an Allied Command, consisting of representatives of the four occupying powers.
Today, the Vienna City Council also handles the business of the Provincial Assembly, and the City Senate constitutes the highest administrative body.
Population
For the early centuries, the population of Vienna and its suburbs (now part of the city’s administrative area) can only be estimated with a degree of uncertainty. For example, the population at the beginning of the 14th century was estimated at around 22,000. Records of the composition of the population show that, in the 15th century, around 44 per cent of the inhabitants came from Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia, Hungary and the southern parts of the monarchy.[3] Following the second Turkish siege, Vienna experienced a period of rapid population growth.
From the mid- to late 18th century, the population rose by more than a third to 230,000 inhabitants. A decisive factor in this was the settlement of, primarily, craftsmen from southern Germany and Bavaria.[4] Following the end of the Coalition Wars, the population grew once more, with the proportion of people not born in Vienna also rising. By the mid-19th century, this applied to around 50 per cent of the population. Immigrants from Bohemia and Moravia made up the largest proportion of this group, whilst immigrants from the territory of the German Confederation accounted for 12 per cent.[5] At the beginning of the 20th century, over 2 million people lived in Vienna, with migrants making up 65 per cent of the population.[6] Vienna was thus not only the capital and seat of government, but also the multi-ethnic centre of the Habsburg multi-national state.
The First World War marked a significant demographic turning point. By 1923, the population had fallen to around 1.8 million.[7] Vienna reached its lowest population level during the Second Republic in 1987, with fewer than 1.5 million inhabitants. Since then, the population has risen steadily, reaching 1,781,042 inhabitants in 2014.[78
Economy
As early as the Middle Ages, the town was of significance for trade between the West and the East owing to its geographical location. In particular, trade on the Danube and the right of staple granted in 1221, alongside the existence of trade routes to Venice, influenced its economic development. The cloth trade, textiles and the clothing industry were the largest sectors. Even at the end of the 18th century, these trades accounted for 40 per cent of all businesses. Economic crises (1811, 1873) hampered the city’s development, whilst the abolition of the guild system in 1859 bolstered Vienna’s importance as an industrial centre. The first half of the 20th century brought further economic crises, depression and periods of shortages, before the situation began to improve from the 1950s onwards.
History of Religion and the Church
The churches of St Ruprecht and St Peter date back to an early phase of the city’s development. The cathedral was built in 1137 as the parish church of St Stephen. The construction of the church of Maria am Gestade dates from the same century. The Schottenkloster is considered Vienna’s oldest monastery; it was founded in 1155. It was followed by settlements of the German Order, the Order of St John, and various mendicant and women’s orders. Also significant for the city’s history were the Jesuits, who were called to Vienna in 1551, and the Capuchins, who settled there in 1599. From 1614 onwards, the Brothers of Mercy were also based in Vienna.
In 1469, Vienna was elevated to the status of a diocese. In the context of the Reformation, the largely Catholic-dominated city council was pitted against the Protestant provincial estates of the surrounding countryside. In 1523, Lutheran books were banned. In 1528, Anabaptists were persecuted and executed. The Habsburgs promoted the Catholicisation of the city, though this could only be enforced after the Battle of White Mountain (Bilá Hora) in 1620.
Under Emperor Charles VI (1685–1740), Vienna was elevated to the status of an archdiocese in 1722. Under Emperor Joseph II (1741–1790), monasteries were dissolved and the parishes within the present-day city limits were reorganised. The legal status of Lutherans, Calvinists, Orthodox Christians and Jews changed in 1781 and 1782 following the enactment of the Edicts of Tolerance. Whilst no figures are available for the number of Protestants in what is now the city area during the 16th and 17th centuries, the 1869 census records 21,200 Protestants.[9]
The existence of a Jewish ghetto in the town is documented as early as the 12th century. In 1421, persecution of Jews took place in the wake of the Hussite Wars. Around 1615, some 300 Jews were counted in the town; the community subsequently grew to 1,346 members before being expelled once again in 1670. By the end of the 18th century, there were thought to be around 900 Jews; their number rose to about 5,000 by 1848 and grew to around 10 per cent of Vienna’s population by the end of the 19th century.[10]
Assimilated Jews, who identified with Austrian culture and the German language, lived throughout the city. Leopoldstadt became the centre of (Eastern) Jewish life in Vienna, where synagogues representing the various immigrant nationalities and groups were established, such as the ‘Turkish Temple’ of the Sephardic Jews. The writer and journalist Theodor Herzl (1860–1904) responded to the rising anti-Semitism with his publication *The Jewish State* (1896) and became the founder of political Zionism.
Following the ‘Anschluss’ of Austria to the German Reich, the ‘Central Office for Jewish Emigration’, founded by Adolf Eichmann in 1938, was active in Vienna, ‘from which their [i.e. the Jews’] exclusion from economic and social life and, later, their deportation were orchestrated. The Central Office formed the administrative nucleus of the Holocaust.”[11]
The first Masonic lodge , Aux Trois Canons, was founded in 1742 and dissolved the very following year. In 1770, Masonic lodges were re-established and remained in existence until they were banned again in 1793. Further lodges were not established until 1918.
Architecture and Art History
![Schönbrunn Palace owes its present form to a design by Niccolo Pacassi and Johann Ferdinand Hetzendorf von Hohenberg (1733–1816). Until the end of the First World War, it served as the summer residence of the Habsburg imperial family. Today, it functions, amongst other things, as a museum. [Photo (2006): Wikimedia Commons. Hagen Schönherr CC BY-SA 2.5].](/fileadmin/_processed/3/c/csm_800px-Schloss_schoenbrunn_hdr_panorama_089a99fc94.jpg "800px Schönbrunn Palace HDR panorama")
Building activity between the 16th and 18th centuries was shaped by the Counter-Reformation movements of the 17th century, as well as by the desire for prestige on the part of the estates and the Imperial House, in whose service worked prominent architects and artists such as Lucas Cranach the Elder (1472–1553), Pietro Ferrabosco (1512–1588), Franz Anton Maulbertsch (1724–1796) and Niccolo Pacassi (1716–1790). For example, the Amalie Wing of the Hofburg was built around 1575, and between 1624 and 1627 the Loreto Chapel was erected above the Habsburg family vault in the Augustinian Church. In 1667, the Leopoldine Wing of the Hofburg, designed by Filiberto Lucchese (1606–1666), was completed. During the same period, a large number of stately city palaces were built by members of the high nobility. The Baroque architectural style experienced a further heyday during the building boom after 1683.
In 1656, the collection of paintings belonging to Archduke Leopold Wilhelm (1614–1662), comprising some 1,400 works, arrived in Vienna and was housed in the Stallburg. This collection, together with those of Archduke Ferdinand II (1529–1595) and Emperor Rudolf II (1552–1612), was to form the basis of the Picture Gallery in what is now the Kunsthistorisches Museum.
Following the destruction caused during the occupation of the city by Napoleon (1769–1821), Emperor Franz II/I (1768–1835) to dismantle the fortifications, although their final demolition did not take place until 1857 under Emperor Franz Joseph (1830–1916). This was intended to facilitate the construction of the Ringstraße, which was officially opened on 1 May 1865. In the years that followed, a number of significant buildings were erected, including, amongst others, Vienna City Hall (1872–1883 by Friedrich von Schmidt [1825–1891]), the University (1873–1884 by Heinrich Ferstel [1828–1883]), the Burgtheater (1874–1888 by Gottfried Semper [1803–1879] and Karl Freiherr von Hasenauer [1833–1894]), the Parliament (1874–1883 by Theophil Hansen [1813–1891]), the State Opera (1861–1869 by August Sicard von Sicardsburg [1813–1868] and Eduard van der Nüll [1812–1868]) and the Museum of Art and Natural History (1871–1881 by Gottfried Semper and Karl Freiherr von Hasenauer).
Around 1900, with the Vienna Secession and the Wiener Werkstätte, the city became one of the European centres of Art Nouveau. Artists such as Gustav Klimt (1862–1918), Josef Hoffmann (1870–1956), Carl Moll (1861–1945) and Koloman Moser (1868–1918), Oskar Kokoschka (1886–1980) and Egon Schiele (1890–1918), as well as the architects Otto Wagner (1841–1918) and Adolf Loos (1870–1933), were active in Vienna.
Music
From the 17th century onwards, opera, ballet and the Singspiel gained in importance alongside the church and court music that had previously dominated. Foreign musicians, particularly the Dutch and Italians, shaped the music of this period.
Under Emperor Charles VI (1685–1740, reigned from 1711), court music was particularly encouraged. Alongside the imperial court, the nobility and the Catholic Church were, for a long time, the principal patrons of leading composers, who included not only Joseph Haydn (1732–1809) and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791) but also Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827) and Franz Schubert (1797–1828). The development of classical chamber music began during these years.
In the 19th century, light music and dance music came to the fore. Among the leading figures were Joseph Lanner (1801–1843) and the Strauss family, whose most famous members were Johann Strauss the Elder (1804–1849) and Johann Strauss the Younger (1825–1899). During the same period, the Viennese operetta emerged as a new musical genre, particularly through the compositions of Franz von Suppé (1819–1895).
Important institutions of that period included the Society of Music Lovers in Vienna, established in 1812, and the Philharmonic Concerts, founded in 1842. Composers such as Gustav Mahler (1860–1911), Arnold Schoenberg (1874–1951), Alban Berg (1885–1935) and Anton von Webern (1883–1945) lived and worked in Vienna.
Special cultural institutions
Among Vienna’s most important cultural institutions are museums and galleries:
- Albertina (www.albertina.at),
- Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien (www.khm.at),
- MAK – Austrian Museum of Applied Arts (www.mak.at),
- Vienna Natural History Museum (www.nhm-wien.ac.at),
- Vienna Technical Museum (www.technischesmuseum.at),
- Museum of Folk Life and Folk Art (www.volkskundemuseum.at)
with collections from Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and other regions of Eastern Central Europe
as well as theatres and concert halls: Burgtheater Vienna (www.burgtheater.at),
- Vienna Volksoper (www.volksoper.at),
- Vienna Konzerthaus (www.konzerthaus.at),
- Society of Music Friends in Vienna (www.musikverein.at),
- Vienna State Opera (www.wiener-staatsoper.at).
Literature and academia
The Old Viennese folk theatre, with Ferdinand Raimund (1790–1836) and Johann Nestroy (1801–1862), was a defining feature of the Biedermeier period; Eduard von Bauernfeld (1802–1890) and Ludwig Anzengruber (1839–1889) also wrote widely performed folk and local plays. The playwrights Franz Grillparzer (1791–1872) and Friedrich Hebbel (1813–1863), who hailed from northern Germany, are regarded as Vienna’s most significant poets of the 19th century. The short-story writer and poet Ferdinand von Saar (1833–1906) built a bridge to the modern era. In 19th-century Vienna, the genres of theatre criticism and literary journalism were dominated by Eduard Hanslick (1825–1904), Ludwig Speidel (1830–1906) and Ludwig Hevesi (1843–1910). At the turn of the century, writers and journalists turned the city into the centre of ‘coffee-house literature’; leading figures of the ‘Young Vienna’ group included Peter Altenberg (1859–1919), Hermann Bahr (1863–1934), Hugo von Hofmannsthal (1874–1929), Karl Kraus (1874–1936), Felix Salten (1869–1945), Arthur Schnitzler (1862–1931), Stefan Zweig (1881–1942) and others; Robert Musil (1880–1942) and Joseph Roth (1894–1939) were closely associated with the group; Alfred Polgar (1873–1955), Egon Friedell (1878–1938), Hans Weigel (1908–1991), Friedrich Torberg (1908–1979) and Hilde Spiel (1911–1990) carried on the tradition. Heimito von Doderer (1896–1966) described Viennese locales; Josef Weinheber (1892–1945), who was sympathetic to National Socialism, wrote lyrical studies of social milieus. For the Nobel Laureate Elias Canetti (1905–1994), Vienna was a cultural centre and a second home. The poets of the ‘Vienna Group’ centred on H. C. Artmann (1921–2000), Ernst Jandl (1925–2000) and Friederike Mayröcker; Erich Fried (1921–1988) wrote politically engaged poetry. Social criticism characterises the plays and novels of Nobel Prize winner Elfriede Jelinek and Robert Menasse. Helmut Qualtinger (1928–1986) and Georg Kreisler (1922–2011) were masters of Viennese cabaret.
In the field of philosophy, questions of logic and the philosophy of science were discussed by the ‘Vienna Circle’, comprising Moritz Schlick (1882–1936) and, closely associated with him, Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951). The philosopher of religion Martin Buber (1878–1965) was from Vienna. The Viennese psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) founded psychoanalysis; alongside him, Alfred Adler (1870–1937) and Viktor E. Frankl (1905–1997) represented the ‘Vienna School’ in psychology. In medicine, the term ‘Viennese School’ is associated with figures such as Carl von Rokitansky (1804–1878) and Johann von Oppolzer (1808–1871).
4. Discourses/Controversies
In a report published in 2013, a commission of historians chaired by Oliver Rathkolb pointed out that, of the 4,379 street names in Vienna named after individuals, 3.6 per cent must be classified as historically problematic. Twenty-eight of these cases are considered particularly worthy of discussion, as the individuals in question are linked, amongst other things, to anti-Semitism or National Socialism.[12]
Similar controversies can be found in the context of coming to terms with Nazism, for example in the victim–perpetrator discourse triggered by the Waldheim controversy, or in research into the culture of remembrance in the Second Republic.
Bibliography
- Peter Csendes, Ferdinand Opll (eds.): Vienna: A History of a City. Vol. 1: From the Beginnings to the First Turkish Siege (1529). Vienna 2001. URL: e-book.fwf.ac.at/o:230 (accessed 7 November 2015).
- Dieter Hecht, Eleonore Lappin-Eppel, Michaela Raggam-Blesch (eds.): Topography of the Shoah. Places of Remembrance in Destroyed Jewish Vienna [With a foreword by Heidemarie Uhl]. Vienna 2015.
- Peter Csendes, Ferdinand Opll (eds.): Vienna. History of a City. Vol. 3: From 1790 to the Present. Vienna 2007. URL: e-book.fwf.ac.at/o:229 (accessed: 7 November 2015).
- Ingrid Mittenzwei: Between Yesterday and Tomorrow. Vienna’s Early Bourgeoisie at the Turn of the 18th to the 19th Century. Vienna, Cologne, Weimar 1998 (The Bourgeoisie in the Habsburg Monarchy 7).
- Karl Vocelka, Anita Traninger (eds.): Vienna. History of a City. Vol. 2: The Early Modern Capital (16th to 18th centuries). Vienna 2003. URL: e-book.fwf.ac.at/o:152 (accessed: 7 November 2015).
- Andreas Weigl (ed.): Vienna during the Thirty Years’ War. Population – Society – Culture – Religion. Vienna 2001 (Cultural Studies 32).
Periodicals
- Vienna Archaeological Finds. Reports on Archaeology (FWien), 1998 onwards, published by the Museums of the City of Vienna – City Archaeology.
- Vienna Historical Journal, 1946 onwards, published by the Association for the History of the City of Vienna.
Web links
- anno.onb.ac.at/ (ANNO: Historical Austrian Newspapers and Periodicals [digital])
- www.wien.gv.at/archaeologie/index.html (Vienna City Archaeology)
- www.geschichte-wien.at/ (Association for the History of the City of Vienna)
- www.vga.at/ (Association for the History of the Labour Movement)
- www.digital.wienbibliothek.at/nav/classification/454168 (Vienna Library Digital)
- mapire.eu/oesterreichischer-staedteatlas/wien/#OV_63_3 (Austrian City Atlas, Vienna; with numerous maps)
- www.herder-institut.de/bildkatalog/index/index?tree[Orte]=36973&newperspective=thumbnails&with_picture=0 (Images of Vienna in the Herder Institute’s image archive, Marburg)
Notes
[1] See Ortolf Harl: ‘The Roman Period’. In: Csendes, Opll (eds.): Vienna. Vol. 1, pp. 25–48, here p. 48.
[2] See Stefan Zweig’s *The World of Yesterday*. Frankfurt am Main 1985.
[3] Richard Perger: ‘The Inhabitants’. In: Csendes, Opll (eds.): Vienna. Vol. 1, pp. 206–212, here p. 208.
[4] Andreas Weigl: ‘Early Modern Population Growth’. In: Vocelka, Traninger (eds.): Vienna. Vol. 2, pp. 109–132, here pp. 110–111.
[5] Bertrand Michael Buchmann: ‘Demography and Society’. In: Csendes, Opll (eds.): Vienna. Vol. 3, pp. 15–46, here pp. 22–23.
[6] Wolfgang Maderthaner: From around 1860 to 1945. In: Csendes, Opll (eds.): Vienna. Vol. 3, pp. 175–544, here p. 178.
[7] Federal Statistical Office (ed.): Statistical Handbook for the Republic of Austria, 4th class. Vienna 1924.
[8] Statistics Austria (ed.): Annual average population since 1952 by Federal State. Vienna 2015. URL: www.statistik.at/web_de/statistiken/menschen_und_gesellschaft/bevoelkerung/bevoelkerungsstand_und_veraenderung/bevoelkerung_im_jahresdurchschnitt/022312.html (Accessed 3 December 2015).
[9] Bertrand Michael Buchmann: Cult and Culture. In: Csendes, Opll (eds.): Vienna. Vol. 3, pp. 149–157, here p. 153.
[10] Buchmann: Cult and Culture (note 8), pp. 155–157.
[11] Jonny Moser: Austria. In: Wolfgang Benz (ed.): The Scale of the Genocide. The Number of Jewish Victims of National Socialism. Munich 1991 (Sources and Accounts of Contemporary History 33), pp. 67–93, here p. 68.
[12] Oliver Rathkolb, Peter Autengruber, Birgit Nemec, Florian Wenninger: Vienna’s Street Names since 1860 as ‘Political Sites of Remembrance’. Vienna 2013. URL: www.wien.gv.at/kultur/strassennamen/strassennamenpruefung.html (accessed 6 November 2015).
Citation
Christian Gepp: Vienna. In: Online Encyclopaedia on the Culture and History of Germans in Eastern Europe, 2015. URL: ome-lexikon.uni-oldenburg.de/p32439 (accessed 25 January 2022).
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