Moldova

Romanian: Moldova, Ţara Moldovei; Polish: Mołdawia; Hungarian: Moldva; English: Moldova; French: Moldavie

The name ‘Moldau’ is derived from the river of the same name, which rises in the Suceava County in north-eastern Romania in the Carpathian Mountains, flows southwards and, after 237 km, joins the Sereth (Romanian: Siret) near the town of Roman.

There are various theories regarding the origin of the name ‘Moldau’:

a) Derived from the Dacian language: ‘molta’ (= many) and ‘dava’ (= castle or fortress);

b) the death of Prince Dragoş’s bitch “Molda” in a river gave the river and the region their name;

c) Linguists derive the name from the Old High German word ‘Mulde’ or ‘Molde’ (= hollow, depression);

d) other researchers link the name to the Germanic word ‘Wulda’ (= wild, rushing water).

The heraldic animal of Moldova is the aurochs. The animal’s golden head is depicted against a red background. An eight-pointed golden star can be seen between its horns. The head is flanked on the right by a golden rose and on the left by a crescent moon. These symbols (see explanation below) not only adorn the coat of arms of the Romanian region and feature in the national coat of arms of Romania, but are also the heraldic symbols of Bukovina and the Republic of Moldova.

In ancient times, the area that would later become the Vltava was not part of any large empire, but was characterised as a borderland and transit route. Although the area never formed part of the Roman province of Dacia, the Romans regarded it as part of Dacia or Sarmatia. It was inhabited by the Getae, a tribal group of the Thracians. As the influence of the Roman Empire waned and its troops withdrew in 271, various ethnic groups passed through the region during the Migration Period, some of whom settled there, including the Huns, Ostrogoths, Pechenegs and Cumans. The coexistence of the Romanised population with the Slavs who migrated there in the 6th century had a particularly significant impact on the demographic and linguistic structure of the region. Around the turn of the millennium, the area lay within the sphere of influence of the Byzantine and Bulgarian Empires, and later also of the Kingdom of Hungary.

The devastating Mongol invasion of 1241–42 marked a turning point in the region’s political history. Subsequently, from the mid-13th to the mid-14th century, the Golden Horde ruled the territory stretching from the lower Volga to the Eastern Carpathians in the west. The predominantly Romanian-speaking population was obliged to pay tribute to the Mongol Empire. In the 13th century, the northern part of what would later become Moldavia lay within the sphere of influence of the Principality ofHalych-Volhynia. Following the latter’s demise, this area passed to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and, after the Union, to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The power calculations of the Hungarian kings, who sought to extend their sphere of influence east of the Carpathians, played a significant role in the political development of Moldavia. In the 13th and 14th centuries, they succeeded in incorporating the territories as far as the Sereth into the Hungarian Empire by establishing a system of border defences. This was based on smaller political units (knezates or voivodeships). The first voivode, Dragoş, came from Maramureș (Romanian: Maramureș) to drive out the Tatars east of the Carpathians P.p. According to legend, he and his retinue are said to have followed an aurochs from Maramureș into the Moldau, losing his dog Molda in the river, which was subsequently named the Moldau. The Hungarian King Louis I of Anjou appointed Dragoş as margrave of the new territory for approximately two years (1351–1353), with the town of Molde/Baia serving as its first centre. Consequently, Dragoş was given the epithet ‘Settler’ (‘Descălecător’ = ‘he who dismounts [from his horse]’). However, Bogdan I, who also came from Maramureș, is regarded as the actual ‘founder’ (‘Întemeietor’) of Moldavia. During his brief reign (1359–1365), he succeeded in laying the foundations for a separate state, whose territory was originally also known as Bogdania.

In connection with the establishment of border posts by the Kingdom of Hungary, German-speaking settlers, including some from Saxony, arrived in what would later become Moldavia. The earliest traces of German settlements east of the Carpathians date back to the 13th century. Their origins are to be seen in the context of medieval land development in Transylvania and the Principality of Halych-Volhynia, as well as in west-east and north-south long-distance trade.

With the emergence of the Principality of Moldavia in the 14th century, merchants arrived in Moldavia, particularly from Lemberg/Ľviv, the capital of the Principality of Halych, and from Transylvania. This transit trade also led to Germans from Transylvania, Lesser Poland and Ruthenia moving to Moldavia, where German settlements in towns can be documented from this period. However, place names and names of watercourses containing the terms ‘sas’ (= Saxon) and ‘neamţ’ (= German) – found particularly in the central region of Moldavia – also suggest settlements in rural areas. In his account, the Austrian Franz Josef Sulzer states that “the Saxons had once lived in large numbers in Wallachia and the Moldau” – referring to the period before 1234. Just how difficult it is to make statements about Germans in the Moldau is also demonstrated by Sulzer’s further remarks, in which he writes that the Germans were “Orthodox or Catholic, and tended rather to adopt the Wallachian religion there”.^[1]

In the only medieval account on this subject – the geographical description by the Dominican Johannes, Archbishop of Sultanieh, dated 1404 (Libellus de notitia orbis) – mention is made of ‘many Germans’ who are said to ‘live’ in Moldavia. It is generally assumed that, in the course of the 14th century, German-speaking settlers established themselves in Moldavia, having come either from Northern Transylvania to Baia and Neamţ or from Halych-Volhynia to Sereth/Siret. Sutschawa/Suceava and Romesmarkt/Roman are also said to have been destinations for immigrants in the 1380s. German-speaking settlements can already be identified in the aforementioned towns and in Sereth at the time of the principality of Moldavia’s formation. In addition to archaeological finds, this is confirmed by documents from Lemberg (deed, town register), in which German civic names from these towns are recorded.

In the first few centuries following the founding of the principality, it managed to preserve its sovereignty by skilfully manoeuvring between the surrounding great powers of Hungary, Poland and the Ottoman Empire. Right up until the 15th century, Hungarian kings repeatedly sought to exert influence over internal developments in Moldavia. From 1387 onwards, the Kingdom of Poland exercised nominal supremacy over the principality for more than a century. From the 15th century onwards, the Ottoman Empire emerged as the dominant power in South-Eastern Europe. Prince Stephen ‘the Great’ (Stefan cel Mare), who reigned from 1457 to 1504, is regarded as the most significant ruler of this period. Through a skilful balancing act of defiance and submission, Stefan managed at times to fend off the claims to supremacy and the conflicting interests of the neighbouring powers. The aura of the heroic fighter against the Turks – who held his own militarily not only against the Ottoman Empire, but also against the Hungarian and Polish kings, made Stephen the Great one of the most important figures of identification in the process of Romanian nation-building during the second half of the 19th century. Even before this period, and continuing to the present day, this Moldavian prince is regarded as a central figure of remembrance not only in Romania but also in the Republic of Moldova. In 1992, he was canonised by the Romanian Orthodox Church and given the epithet Stephen ‘the Great and Holy’.

Following the death of Stephen the Great, disputes broke out once more amongst the boyars, which he had managed to contain during his lifetime. Weak princes allowed the state to be governed by the council (sfat, divan) and by power-hungry boyars. The Ottoman Empire was able to extend its influence; in addition to foreign policy, it influenced the appointment of local rulers and introduced tribute payments. In the 16th century, the principality was also integrated into the Empire’s economic sphere; it was permitted to source its goods only from the Empire of the Crescent and was required to sell certain products there at fixed prices.

In the pre-modern period, the vast majority of the population were Greek Orthodox and Romanian-speaking. Following the establishment of the Principality of Moldavia, a distinct ecclesiastical hierarchy also emerged in the second half of the 14th century. A Roman Catholic mission began very early on, in the course of which Catholic settlers, as well as missionaries from various religious orders, arrived in Moldavia. The main points of origin were, in addition to the Principality of Halych-Volhynia, Transylvania in particular; furthermore, the sources mention not only ‘Poland’ but also ‘Hungary’ (Magyars, the so-called Csangos, Romanian: Ceangăi, Hungarian: csángó) and Saxons from Transylvania.

During the Reformation, Protestant immigrants also arrived in Moldavia; it is said that around 1420 ‘both Hungarian and Saxon Hussites from Transylvania crossed over into Moldavia’^[2]. The latter are said to have settled in Kottnersberg/Cotnari (also referred to as “Kotnar” in some sources). Furthermore, Saxons are said to have lived in Molde/Baia and Deutschmarkt/Târgu Neamț (often referred to simply as ‘Neamț’ in sources) and, together with Hungarians, also in Sutschawa/Suceava (also referred to as ‘Sotschava’ in sources), Sereth and Romesmarkt/Roman. In Molde, Sulzer mentioned a “German church” (Bisserika niemzaska). The Austrian also named several other villages where Saxons are said to have lived.

The settlers who established themselves in Kottnersberg in the 15th century are said to have been particularly active in viticulture. It is unclear, however, whether the Latin town seal – which, as in the case of Romesmarkt, cannot be precisely dated – indicates a German or a Hungarian ruling class.

The reports of the Congregatio sacra de Propaganda Fidei (16th and, in particular, 17th centuries), which were compiled by Catholic missionaries during the Counter-Reformation, provide an overview of German settlements in Moldavia. ‘Saxons’ are mentioned in five towns, amongst others: Kottnersberg, Molde, Sutschawa, Deutschmarkt, Romesmarkt and Sereth. In these places, Germans did not live in isolation but as part of a larger community. Other towns where Germans were settled in the 16th and 17th centuries include Barchau/Bacău, Trotuş, Berlad/Bârlad, Jassy/Iaşi and Huss/Huşi.^[3] It is noteworthy that settlement took place in towns that played a central role in the administration and politics of the principality. Molde, for instance, was the first seat of power, followed by Sereth, Romesmarkt, Sutschawa and, finally, Jassy.

There are no figures available for the number of German inhabitants in the individual towns in Moldavia. Visitation reports merely mention Catholic inhabitants, by which, in addition to ‘Saxons’, Hungarians are primarily meant. However, figures from 1641 and 1643 show a wide range: Kottnersberg 35–50 per cent, Molde 21–26 per cent, Deutschmarkt 14–15 per cent, Sutschawa 1 per cent and Romesmarkt 2 per cent. Despite these fluctuations and the wide range, it appears that Catholics – and thus Germans – formed part of the ruling classes. This is indicated not only by the town seals bearing Latin inscriptions (such seals have been found not only for Kottnersberg and Romesmarkt but also for Molde, Deutschmarkt, Sereth and Sutschawa ), but also references to personal names in town councils and letters from town councillors in German from Molde and Sutschawa dating from the 15th and 16th centuries.

The reign of Prince Vasile Lupu (1634–1653), who not only commissioned the construction of numerous churches (including Trei Ierarhi in Iași), but also founded a secondary school in Iași and a printing press. Church culture also experienced a new surge of activity. The Orthodox Metropolitan Varlaam commissioned the printing of several books. Alongside Slavonic as the language of the chancellery, literature and liturgy, Romanian gradually gained ground, as seen, for example, in the collection of sermons *Cazania* and the codified law *Carte românească de învățătură* (also known as *Pravila lui Vasile Lupu* ).

The political events that unfolded during the rest of the 17th century had serious consequences for the demographic structure of the principality. Even Moldavia’s vassal status vis-à-vis the Ottoman Empire had a negative impact on settlement patterns and on the size of the German-speaking population. Trade with the East, in which Moldavia played an important role, declined in significance. The Reformation and Counter-Reformation also had an impact on demographic conditions in Moldavia. According to historical accounts, there were no longer any Germans living in Sereth as early as the 16th century; after 1630, there was a steady decline in the proportion of the German-speaking population, particularly in Deutschmarkt, Sutschawa and Romesmarkt. A German population remained in Kottnesberg and Molde.

This long period of decline finally came to an end with the events following 1683, when Polish, Tatar, Turkish and Cossack troops, and in 1709, when Swedish and Russian troops, laid waste to many towns in Moldavia. Countless people fled, and many towns were deserted; it was in this context that the German settlements in Moldavia also disappeared.

In the 18th century, as a result of the shifts in the balance of power in this part of Europe, the Vltava once again found itself at the centre of attention for various great powers: As part of the expansion of the Russian Empire, Tsar Peter the Great (1672–1725) marched with his army to the Pruth, where he suffered a defeat at the hands of Ottoman troops in 1711. The Habsburg Monarchy, with its sights set on the east and south-east, succeeded in 1775, through a treaty with the Sublime Porte, in separating the northern part of Moldavia and annexing it as a new territory under the name ‘Bukovina’.

This new balance of power prompted Constantinople, as early as the beginning of the 18th century, to intervene in the internal affairs of Moldavia and, through the direct appointment of rulers – the so-called Phanariots – to bind the principality more closely to itself between 1711 and 1821. Alongside a strong Hellenisation of the state, the church, society and culture, this period also saw a series of modernisations; amongst other things, Enlightenment ideas found their way into the principality.

Following the Russo-Ottoman War of 1787–1792, the Ottoman Empire was forced, under the Treaty of Jassy, to cede all its possessions east of the Dniester. Following the Sixth Russo-Ottoman War (1806–1812), an enlarged Bessarabia was incorporated into the Russian Empire. The territory, organised as the Bessarabia Governorate, comprised the region between the Pruth and Dniester rivers and thus roughly the eastern half of the former Principality of Moldavia.

In 1821, Phanariot rule came to an end and the principality became the scene of the Greek struggle for independence, which had begun in Russia. Following the Russo-Ottoman War (1828–29), which took place a few years later, Russia became the protectorate power over Moldavia; the Sultan retained only formal sovereignty.

Following Russia’s defeat in the Crimean War of 1853–1856, the Treaty of Paris stipulated that Moldavia and Wallachia were to be placed under the collective guarantee of the seven signatory states.

With the election of Alexandru Ioan Cuza (1820–1873) as Prince of Moldavia on 17 January 1859 and as Prince of Wallachia on 5 February 1859, Moldavia became a province of the new Romanian state. The joint capital of the territory, initially known as the ‘United Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia’ (Romanian: Principatele Unite ale Ţării Româneşti şi Moldovei), was Iași until 1861. On 24 December 1861, Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza officially proclaimed the state of Romania, with Bucharest (Bucureşti) as its capital. In 1878, the Congress of Berlin confirmed the sovereignty and independence of the new state from the Ottoman Empire.

Following the sharp decline in the number of German inhabitants in Moldavia – and, in some regions, their near-total disappearance – reports suggest that, from the 18th century onwards, individual groups began to resettle there, particularly in the main towns. The records of the Austrian Franz Josef Sulzer from 1781–82 state that the Moldavian prince Alexandru Murusi had “granted the German Protestants in Iași, who had recently begun to move there in considerable numbers, a plot of land for a Protestant church”^[4]. Sulzer also names prominent figures within the community, including Pastor Scharsius from Mediasch in Transylvania, ‘Doctor Wolf’ and the Latin teacher ‘Joh. König’.

It is also stated that the German-speaking Protestant population of Jassy (including Prussians, Austrians and Swedes) numbered 80 people in 1780. Towards the end of the 18th century, an increasing number of craftsmen and manufacturers – rather than Germans working in agriculture – migrated from Transylvania to the Principalities. Although some settled in Moldavia, the majority were drawn to Wallachia. Apart from Jassy^[5][6] , Germans lived in and around Backau^[7] as well as in Buhuşi to the north-east,^[8] where they were employed as civil servants, master craftsmen and workers in the textile industry. Also in Deutschenmarkt,^[9] Romesmarkt^[10] and Paşcani^[11] were home to Germans. In the latter two towns, it was the railway in particular that attracted Germans at times. South of the Moldau, there were German communities in Mărăşeşti, Focşani^[12] and the Danube port of Galatz/Galaţi^[13] . In the north, Germans from Bukovina moved to the towns of Fălticeni,^[14] Botoşani^[15] and Dorohoi^[16].

The development of the medieval town in the region is closely linked to the history of the Germans in the Moldau. Craft trades and commerce led to the densification and centralisation of settlements. Certain terms point to a clear influence from Transylvania and Halych-Volhynia: şoltuz (Schultus = mayor), voit (= bailiff), pârgar (purger = councillor). The influence of the German settlers is also evident in other areas of urban culture; for instance, the architectural style of the houses in Iași was shaped by both Jews and Germans. The Germans, particularly those from Transylvania, were craftsmen, watchmakers, goldsmiths, master builders, joiners, metalworkers, blacksmiths, hat-makers, innkeepers and others. Beer brewing was also among their trades. For instance, the doctor Herlitz established a brewery in Jassy in 1793, and the Austrian Alexander Dos did the same in Romesmarkt in 1816.

In the 1830s, the booksellers Hemschieg and Hennig introduced a whole range of German works. Printers such as Bärmann, who came from Pyrmont, also settled in Jassy. In various towns in Moldavia – such as Galatz, Barchau, Buhuşi and Jassy – associations were founded in the second half of the 19th century with the aim of preserving and promoting German culture, including German schools.

The German settlements in Moldavia can claim neither a coherent history nor a geographical cohesion. On the whole, the Germans remained concentrated in individual localities right up until the 19th century. Accordingly, the available sources and literature are not extensive: apart from archaeological finds, there are only a few town records and travel accounts. To date, only a handful of historians have examined this phenomenon, and there is clearly a great deal of ground to make up.

• Edda Binder-Iijima, Vasile Dumbrava (eds.): Stefan the Great. Prince of Moldavia. The symbolic role and changing significance of a medieval ruler. Leipzig 2005.
• Horst Fassel: Self-discovery or Self-abandonment. The German Minority in the Moldavian City of Iași. In: Anuarul de Lingvistică şi Istorie literară 33 (1992/93), pp. 221–238.
• Raimund Friedrich Kaindl: History of the Germans in Hungary and Transylvania up to 1763, and in Wallachia and Moldavia up to 1774. Gotha 1907.
• Victor Spinei: Moldavia in the 11th–14th Centuries. Bucharest 1986.
• Ekkehard Völkl: The Romanian Principality of Moldavia and the Eastern Slavs in the 15th to 17th Centuries. Wiesbaden 1975 (Publications of the Institute for Eastern European Studies, Munich, History 42).
• Ibid.: Moldavia. In: Edgar Hösch, Karl Nehring, Holm Sundhaussen (eds.): Encyclopaedia of the History of South-Eastern Europe. Vienna et al. 2004, pp. 453–455.
• Hugo Weczerka: German Settlements and the Influence of German Municipal Law in the Medieval Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. Cologne et al. 1982 (Studies on German Culture in the East 17).
• Ibid.: The Principality of Moldavia and the Germans. In: Isabel Röskau-Rydel (ed.): Galicia, Bukovina, Moldavia. 2nd ed. Berlin 2002 (German History in Eastern Europe), pp. 329–378.
• Ibid.: ‘Medieval German Settlements on Both Sides of the Carpathians’. In: *Südostdeutsches Archiv* 5 (1963), pp. 3–19.
• Ibid.: Medieval and Early Modern German Settlements in the Principality of Moldavia from their Beginnings to their Decline (13th–17th Centuries). Munich 1960 (Series of the South-East German Historical Commission 4).
• Ibid.: On the History of the Germans in Moldavia and Wallachia up to the 17th Century. In: Südostdeutsches Archiv 26/27 (1983/84), pp. 69–87.

• 2002 Census. The Ethno-demographic Structure of Romania. Ethno-demographic Structure by Geographical Area [2002 Census. The Ethno-demographic Structure of Romania. Ethno-demographic Structure by Geographical Area]. URL: www.edrc.ro/recensamant.jsp?regiune_id=0&judet_id=163&localitate_id=164

[1] Franz Josef Sulzer: History of Transalpine Dacia, that is, Wallachia, Moldavia and Bessarabia, in the context of the history of the rest of Dacia, conceived as an attempt at a general history of the Dacians, written with critical licence. Volume Three of the First or Geographical Part. Vienna 1782, p. 653.

[2] Sulzer (as in note 1), p. 653.

[3] There is considerable inconsistency in the use of place names. In the following, therefore, the German or Romanian names in current use will be given.

[4] Sulzer (as in note 1), p. 666.

[5] Whilst craftsmen and merchants were moving in, peasant settlement lagged far behind. However, there is a lack of detailed information on this. The difficulties in obtaining more precise information are also linked to the fact that there was no systematically promoted settlement programme. Consequently, there are no figures available for settlers in the 18th and 19th centuries, particularly for the region of Moldavia. Generalisations can only be made regarding individual localities and the movements and activities taking place there.

[6] The 2002 census lists 95 Germans for Iași based on classification by mother tongue (166 Germans according to ethnic criteria). www.edrc.ro/recensamant.jsp?regiune_id=1&judet_id=163&localitate_id=164. In the following, the figures based on mother tongue are given first for comparison, followed by the figures based on ethnic criteria in brackets.

[7] According to the 1930 census, 400 Germans lived in Barchau; by 2002, this figure had fallen to 51 (83).

[8] According to the 2002 census, there are two (10) Germans living in Buhuşi.

[9] According to the 2002 census, 29 (66) Germans live in Kreuzburg on the Bistritz/Piatra Neamţ.

[10] According to the 2002 census, 15 (31) Germans live in Romesmarkt.

[11] According to the 2002 census, there are no longer any native German speakers living in Paşcani (8 Germans according to ethnicity).

[12] In the 2002 census, 27 people in Focşani identified as belonging to the German ethnic group and 18 identified German as their mother tongue.

[13] According to the 2002 census, 62 (114) Germans live in Galați.

[14] According to the 2002 census, 14 (20) Germans live in Fălticeni.

[15] According to the 2002 census, 19 (46) Germans live in Botoşani.

[16] According to the 2002 census, two (three) Germans live in Dorohoi.

Hans-Christian Maner: Moldau. In: Online Encyclopaedia on the Culture and History of Germans in Eastern Europe, 2013. URL: ome-lexikon.uni-oldenburg.de/54141.html (accessed 11 May 2021).