Stuhlweißenburg, also known as Weissenburg

approx. Székesfehérvár

Latin: Alba, Alba Civitas, Alba Regia, Alba Regalis^[1]; Slavic: Belgrad^[2].

As early as 1009, the settlement is mentioned as ‘Alba Civitas’ in the charter of foundation of the diocese of Wesprim/Veszprém, and also on the chasuble made in 1031 for the Basilica of Stuhlweißenburg – later used as the coronation robe of the Hungarian kings – chasuble.^[3] The German name is attested as early as 1044 as ‘Wzzenburch’ ( in an itinerary from Jerusalem) and as ‘Vizenburg’ ( Annales Altahenses).^[4] The Hungarian form ‘Feheruuaru’ appears for the first time in 1055 in the founding charter of Tihany Abbey (Tihanyi Apátság) on Lake Balaton.^[5] The original name of the settlement was probably of Slavic origin: the significant Slavic population living here before the 11th century referred to the settlement, which was founded at the end of the 10th century under Prince Géza (Hungarian Grand Prince 972–997) and at the beginning of the 11th century under the first Hungarian King Stephen I the Saint (Grand Prince 997–1000, King 1000/1001–1038) – ‘Belgrad’, meaning ‘White Castle’, a name which was subsequently translated into Hungarian (Fehérvár). However, it cannot be ruled out that the Slavic and Hungarian names originated at roughly the same time. At the same time, it should be noted that several authors of 12th-century historiographical sources – German, Roman and Sicilian writers using Arabic script – independently used the Slavic rather than the Hungarian name for the town. The term ‘chair’ most likely refers to the ‘royal chair’ kept in the city and used during coronations – that is, to the throne of the Hungarian kings.

Stuhlweißenburg is situated at^47° 12’ north latitude and^18° 25’ east longitude, between LakeBalaton and Lake Velence (Velencei-tó), some 60 km south-west of Budapest. It was founded at the junction of major military roads; later, important trade and pilgrimage routes crossed here, underlining the town’s strategic importance.

Stuhlweißenburg lies at the geographical centre of medieval Hungary, or rather slightly to the north-west of it. It is situated in Central Transdanubia (Közép-Dunántúl), on the south-western edge of the Velencei Mountains (Velencei hegység), in the southern part of the Móri Depression (Móri-árok), which separates the Bakony Mountains (Bakony hegység) and theVértes Mountains (Vértes hegység) in a north-west to south-east direction, and thus lies on the border between two distinct landscape regions. Its terrain is correspondingly varied, consisting largely of flat and hilly country, with a small proportion of mountainous terrain. Predominantly, however, the landscape bears the hallmarks of the Great Plain (Mezőföld), which stretches between the Sió Canal (Sió csatorna) and the Danube. Stuhlweißenburg was thus founded on a water-collecting area on four headlands jutting out of the marshland, with the marshy terrain providing the settlement with considerable security for a long time, until around 1400. In addition, ditches, dykes, sluices and ramparts were constructed to protect the town, and the surrounding water system was regulated.

Western Hungary (Nyugat-Magyarország), Transdanubia (Dunántúl), Central Transdanubia (Közép-Dunántúl).

Hungary; a city with county status in Transdanubia (Dunántúl); Centre of the Central Transdanubia region; seat of Fejér County (Fejér Megye) and the Székesfehérvár District (Székesfehérvári járás); one of Hungary’s largest cities.

A blue coat-of-arms, tapering at the bottom, depicts a green triple hill upon which stands a silver castle wall built of ashlar blocks with black mortar joints. In the centre of the wall, the black-and-silver wings of the castle gate are open to the right and left. In the upper third of the gate, the raised black portcullis is visible. Three towers stand on the castle wall; the central one rises above the others and is topped with a red onion dome. Each tower has three embrasures (2–1) and three battlements on the parapet. Set upon the upper edge of the shield is an open golden crown with nine points, richly adorned with sapphires and rubies. The emblems are blue and gold on the right, and red and silver on the left. The open gate signifies that the gate of Stuhlweißenburg is always open to honest and upright people, but closes to those who are hostile or tyrannical. The castle was included in the coat of arms because of its great significance in the life of the settlement. The central tower with its onion dome refers to the basilica founded by King Stephen I the Saint and dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary. The golden crown placed atop the coat of arms symbolises that the kings of the Kingdom of Hungary were crowned in Stuhlweißenburg. The lush, stylised plant ornamentation on the magnificent elements surrounding the shield expresses vigour and the will to live.

Stuhlweißenburg is also known as the ‘City of Kings’ (Hungarian: királyok városa), because in the Middle Ages it served as the coronation and burial site of the Hungarian kings and thus as the royal and sacred centre of the Kingdom of Hungary. The coronation in the Basilica of Stuhlweißenburg was regarded as a means of legitimisation: a legitimate coronation involved the ceremony in Stuhlweißenburg, performed by the Archbishop of Gran/Esztergom using the coronation regalia of St Stephen I. From Peter Orseolo (c. 1008–1046, crowned 1038) right up to Johann Szapolyai (1487–1540, coronation 1526) and the Habsburg Ferdinand I (1503–1564, coronation 1527), respectively, all kings of Hungary were crowned here. Following St Stephen I, numerous kings chose the town as their final resting place.

The earliest evidence of human settlement here dates back to the Neolithic period (5th millennium BC). In the area of today’s city centre, pottery shards dating from the Copper Age, the Bronze Age and the Late Bronze Age, as well as Celtic and Roman pottery, have been discovered. In Roman antiquity, the nearby town of Gorsium (Tác) served as the administrative centre of the Roman province of Pannonia Inferior. From there, the trade routes were controlled: northwards and westwards; south-eastwards to the Balkan Peninsula; north-eastwards to the crossing point over the Danube; and along the shores of Lake Balaton towards the Adriatic Sea and Italy.

Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the area was occupied by East Germanic tribes under Hun leadership; after the dissolution of the Hun Empire, it was settled by East and North Germanic peoples. After 568, Avar tribes settled in the area, only to be driven out by the Franks and Bavarians in the 8th–9th centuries. Finds from the period following the ‘conquest’ by the Hungarians date from the Árpád era (city walls, ruins of the early square-shaped royal castle, remains of the basilica and other churches, stone carvings, pottery fragments, etc.) and from the Turkish period (remains of towers, baths, etc.), which have been unearthed in recent decades in the course of archaeological research.

In the late 9th century, the ‘land-taking’ Hungarians settled in the area that would later become the city. Grand Prince Géza (reigned 972–997) built both a palace with defensive works and a parish church dedicated to the Apostles Peter and Paul – which later also served as his burial place – in the centre of today’s city centre (on the hill where the present-day cathedral stands), the foundations of which were excavated in 1971. His son, the first Hungarian king, Stephen I the Saint, developed the city into the kingdom’s most important centre alongside Gran. He also founded the basilica dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary, where coronation ceremonies took place and where numerous kings of Hungary were buried. Between 998 and 1000, Stephen I – who had married Gisela, the daughter of a Bavarian duke and sister of the future Emperor Henry II (reigned 1014–1024)—probably modelled on the German system, established the royal burggespanschaften, the precursors of the later counties, and the ecclesiastical dioceses, with Stuhlweißenburg becoming the centre of a burggespanschaft.

The town also hosted the provincial assemblies (Imperial Diets) during the Middle Ages. In 1222, King Andrew II (reigned 1205–1235) proclaimed the kingdom’s first written constitution, the Golden Bull, here.

Between the two world wars, Stuhlweißenburg grew in importance. This was partly due to the fact that, as a result of the Treaty of Trianon (4 June 1920), numerous major towns now lay outside the new Hungarian borders. In 1922, the town commemorated the proclamation of the Golden Bull 700 years earlier. In 1938, the government declared it the Year of the First Hungarian King, Saint Stephen, and numerous festive events took place in Stuhlweißenburg.

The Second World War caused severe damage to the town; it was first occupied by German troops, then by Soviet troops.

Stuhlweißenburg became one of the centres of the 1956 revolution and struggle for freedom.

Several minority self-governing bodies operate in Stuhlweißenburg, including those representing the German, Croatian, Polish, Armenian and Serbian communities.

Stuhlweißenburg’s twin towns in Germany are Weißenburg in Bavaria and Schwäbisch Gmünd.

Hungarians began settling here as early as the ‘conquest’ in the late 9th century; more extensive settlement took place in the 10th and 11th centuries with the expansion of the royal residence by the Hungarian rulers. During the relatively peaceful decades of the 12th century, the immediate surroundings of Stuhlweißenburg were also settled.

To the north of the castle, the ‘City of the Latins’ (Latin: civitas latinorum) emerged around 1162–1172; this was where mainly Italian and Walloon craftsmen, traders and farmers settled.^[7] Following the Mongol invasion of 1241, King Béla IV (reigned 1235–1270) resettled the ‘Latins’ on the grounds of the royal castle. No suburb could be built to the east of the castle due to the marshy terrain; this only became possible in the 18th century.

During the Ottoman occupation (1543–1688), a large part of the population fled the town and, in their place, Turks and South Slavic peoples serving in the Ottoman auxiliary troops settled there. In the first few decades following the end of ‘Ottoman rule’, a new population emerged. The Hungarians and ‘Raitzen’ (Slavs) who had remained in the town were joined by new settlers: Hungarians from the immediate vicinity and, around 1700, larger groups of Germans and Moravians. Of the German settlers who settled between 1688 and 1703, the place of origin of 162 individuals could be identified: 59.8 per cent came from Austria, Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia; 27 per cent from other German regions (Bavaria, Swabia, Franconia); 2.7 per cent from non-German regions; and 11.1 per cent from western Hungary.^[8] Most of them were craftsmen (working in the building, clothing and food industries, or as potters, coopers, blacksmiths, rope-makers, saltpetre boilers and glaziers).

Although the German settlers always constituted a minority within the total population, their prosperity and their more advanced level of bourgeois integration secured them a leading position in the town administration throughout the 18th century. During the Rákóczi War of Independence (1703–1711) against Habsburg rule, the conflict between the Hungarian and German bourgeoisie came to a head: The German and Serbian bourgeoisie resolved to defend the town against the Hungarian ‘Kurucs’, whilst the Hungarian bourgeoisie decided to protect their own property but not to take up arms against the rebellious ‘Kurucs’. In 1704, the Hungarian population sympathetic to the Kurucs was expelled from the town. It was not until after the Rákóczi War of Independence, in the final third of the 18th century, that most German craftsmen settled in Stuhlweißenburg. However, their numbers were not large due to the conditions imposed (payment of the new citizen’s tax, i.e. the ‘Bürger-Pfennig’, purchase of a town house, and admission to a guild) and amounted to around 20–30 citizens annually.^{[9] For} the period 1688–1848, the names of 4,167 citizens of Stuhlweißenburg are known. Of these, 1,779 were Hungarians, 1,625 Germans, 642 Slavs, 14 Italians, 11 Latinised citizens, and 96 others (some of whom cannot be identified).^[10]

According to the provisions of the charter of privileges of 1703, a citizen of Stuhlweißenburg was permitted to be Roman Catholic only. It is therefore not surprising that, of the 4,167 citizens, 4,025 professed the Roman Catholic faith, 67 the Greek Catholic or Greek Orthodox faith, 37 to the Calvinist faith, 14 to the Lutheran faith and two to some other‘Protestant’denomination.^[11] At the same time, it should be noted that the town’s population with full citizenship rights was numerically in the minority. In 1728, only 453 out of 5,460 inhabitants were ‘citizens’, and in 1828, only 1,080 out of a total of 20,069 inhabitants held citizenship rights.^[12]

As mentioned above, wealthy German citizens held leading positions in the town administration during the 18th and early 19th centuries. Of these, Michael Hiemer (master butcher) and Adam Schlosser (master tanner) are particularly noteworthy, having served as town judges on several occasions. The office of town judge was regarded as the most important post in the town administration; the town judge stood at the head of the so-called Inner Council. Between 1703 and 1731, the town judge was elected annually, alternating between the ranks of the Hungarian and German citizens. At the end of the 17th century and throughout the 18th century, half of the members of the Inner Council were Hungarian and half were German. The Inner and Outer Councils maintained contact through a spokesperson (Vormunder)^[13]. In the 18th century, there was both a Hungarian and a German ‘Vormunder’. The quartermasters were drawn from the ranks of the craftsmen. From the last third of the 18th century onwards, the settlement of Germans slowed down because the town council only admitted craftsmen in shortage occupations (sculptors, printers, wig-makers, hosiery-makers, glue-boilers, coppersmiths) into the burgher class.

In the 18th century, the languages spoken by the population were Hungarian and German, whilst the languages of the town administration were Hungarian, German and Latin. During the Magyarisation of the town in the 19th century, the church, schools, theatre groups and the associations founded during the Reform Era played an important role alongside the state administration. By 1850, only 23 citizens still identified as German.^[14] The Germans had gradually assimilated. The German language survived longest in church practice; the diocese did not discontinue German-language masses until early December 1885.

The population is estimated at 3,000 for the early 18th century, 11,780 in 1787, 20,000 at the start of the reform period in the early 19th century, and 22,633 in 1846.^[15] According to the 2011 census, the population stood at 100,570, of whom 98.9 per cent were Hungarians, 0.4 per cent were Sinti and Roma, 0.3 per cent were Germans, 0.04 per cent were Slovaks and 0.36 per cent were other ethnic groups. In 2015, the population stood at 98,673.^[16]

Throughout the Middle Ages, the town was regarded as an important trading centre: major domestic trade routes – to Siófok, Pécs, Dunaföldvár and Wesprim, Raab/Győr, Gran and Ofen – and international trade routes – from Italy to Kyiv and from Byzantium to Western Europe – passed through the town. Accordingly, the market was regarded as one of Stuhlweißenburg’s most important economic drivers in the Middle Ages, having already been mentioned in the laws of King Ladislaus I (reigned 1077–1095). Its weekly markets were widely renowned; traders even came from Hermannstadt/Sibiu and Bartfeld/Bardejov to attend the regional market. A significant factor was that the seat of the ruler’s salt chamber was located in the town.

The ‘Turkish rule’ brought urban life largely to a standstill. Only those guilds that were of particular importance to the Ottomans continued to operate. Guild life did not experience an upswing until after the end of Ottoman rule: most of the guilds in Stuhlweißenburg were granted privileges between 1692 and 1695. It was not until the charter of privileges issued by Emperor Leopold I (King of Hungary 1655–1705, Emperor 1658–1705) in 1703 that real change came to the town. By the end of the 18th century, guild life in Stuhlweißenburg had also become significant at the regional level: the number of craft trades rose to over 64 by 1784 and to over 86 by 1841.

The suppression of the 1848–1849 revolution dampened the town’s economic upswing. From 1860 onwards, connection to the railway network gave new impetus to economic development. In 1879, the Industrial Exhibition of the Kingdom of Hungary was held in Stuhlweißenburg.

The town suffered severe damage during both world wars. After 1945 – during the socialist era – the town, branded as a ‘clerical’ centre and ‘bishop’s see’, experienced further stagnation. There were even discussions as to whether Stuhlweißenburg should retain its ‘capital city’ status for Fejér County or hand it over to the new ‘socialist’ city of Stalinstadt (Sztálinváros, originally Dunapentele, now Dunaújváros). With the general political consolidation of the country, stronger economic development also began in Stuhlweißenburg from the 1960s onwards. During this period, large enterprises such as Videoton (consumer electronics), KÖFÉM (light metal works/aluminium rolling mill) and IKARUS (bus manufacturer) grew or were established.

The change of political system and the accompanying privatisation led to the closure of the large socialist enterprises and widespread unemployment. In the early 1990s, international companies began investing in the town and the first industrial estates were established, where several firms from the textile, mechatronics, electronics, Computing Science, food and logistics sectors set up operations. Today, Stuhlweißenburg is regarded as one of Hungary’s most important economic centres and one of its key transport hubs.

At Stuhlweißenburg, the military roads running from north-west to south-east and from east to west crossed; these played an important role not only in the town’s founding but also in its later history. From Western Europe, the Crusaders were able to reach the Holy Land by land via the Kingdom of Hungary, and so several Crusader armies passed through Stuhlweißenburg.

In 1242, the ‘Mongol invasion’ (Tatars) also reached Stuhlweißenburg, though only the suburbs were completely destroyed. Following the death of King Matthias Corvinus in 1490, the siege and occupation of the town by the Habsburg troops of Maximilian I (Emperor 1508–1519), whose mercenaries pillaged and ransacked the entire city, including the royal basilica. The 16th–17th centuries are regarded as the most difficult period in the town’s history, when the Ottomans conquered the town in 1543 and, under their rule for a century and a half, it played an important role in the defence system along the north-western border of the Ottoman Empire. Within the Ottoman administrative system, the sanjak (district) of Stuhlweißenburg formed part of the Ofen vilayet (province).

During the Rákóczi War of Independence, Stuhlweißenburg became one of the most important bases for the Habsburg army. The Kuruc armies were only able to capture the town for a short time. Following the Treaty of Sathmar (1711), Stuhlweißenburg Castle – like many others in Hungary – was razed to the ground: its defences were blown up, its walls destroyed and torn down, and its moats filled in. In the centuries that followed, Stuhlweißenburg was spared from military action, with the exception of the Revolution of 1848–49. This only changed during the Second World War, when the town was devastated first by carpet bombing and then by fighting between German and Soviet troops.

The first known school in the town is considered to be the Provost’s School (Cathedral Chapter), founded by Stephen I the Saint, where basic knowledge was imparted in accordance with European standards and the seven liberal arts were taught. According to a record from 1688, the town also had a Hungarian school during the period of Ottoman rule.

The prolonged period of peace following the Kuruc Wars led to a gradual cultural revival in the town. In keeping with the ethnic composition of the population, there were two primary schools in the 18th century: a Hungarian one (Hung. Schull Haus) and a German one (Teutsche Schull).^[18] In 1770, a school was also opened for Greek Catholic Serbs. The grammar school, founded by the Jesuits in 1724, was staffed by teachers of supra-regional renown, such as the Jesuit and historian György Pray (1723–1801), who also taught for several years at the Theresianum in Vienna and was curator of the University Library of Ofen; the Jesuit, poet and language reformer Dávid Baróti Szabó (1739–1819); the Pauline monk and poet of Hungarian sentimentalism Pál Ányos (1756–1784); and the Pauline monk, historian and poet Benedek Virág (c. 1752–1830). It was here that eminent figures such as the theologian and historian György Fejér (1766–1851), the historian István Horvát (1784–1846), the poet, writer and translator Mihály Vörösmarty (1800–1855), one of the most important figures of Hungarian Romanticism, and the ethnographer and linguist Antal Reguly (1819–1858). Hungarian language lessons were first introduced at the end of the 18th century, initially by the Paulines, and later by the Cistercians, who took over the grammar school in 1813 and also taught in Hungarian in the lower classes.

There are currently 20 nursery schools, 23 primary schools and 24 secondary schools in the town. The Kodolányi János College (Kodolányi János Főiskola) was founded in 1992 as a non-state higher education institution. Óbuda University (Óbudai Egyetem) runs the ‘Alba Regia School of Engineering’ here, whilst the University of West Hungary (Nyugat-magyarországi Egyetem) runs the ‘School of Geoinformatics’.

Visitors can gain an insight into and experience the work of traditional craftsmen (shoemakers, bootmakers, saddlers, furriers, etc.), particularly the way of life of the Dietrich family of hat-makers, at the‘Palotavárosi Skanzen’ open-air museum. In the Craftsmen’s House (Kézművesek Háza), for example, visitors can learn about the traditional craft of making musical instruments and baked goods, as well as felt-making and papermaking.

The King Saint Stephen Museum (Szent István Király Múzeum) houses an ethnographic exhibition which presents the folk culture of Fejér County in great detail.

Wine-growing in Stuhlweißenburg and the surrounding area dates back to the Árpád era. In 2002, the Noé-Hegyi Order of St Stephen’s Wine Knights (Noé-Hegyi Szent István Borlovagrend) was founded. The ‘Somló Revolution’ (Somlói revolúció), a cake created by Balázs Damniczkis, a confectioner from Stuhlweißenburg, was chosen in 2014 as‘Hungary’s Cake’ (Országtorta, Magyarország tortája), which is always presented to the public in Budapest on 20 August, the symbolic birthday of the Hungarian state. The Restaurant and Bistro 67 (67 Étterem és Bisztró) was named one of Hungary’s top ten restaurants for the fourth time by the Hennessy Dining Guide in 2015. Stuhlweißenburg offers a wide range of sporting activities (basketball, football, handball, cricket, figure skating, dance, American football, rugby); the “Videoton FC” football team plays in the Hungarian First Division and became Hungarian champions for the first time in 2011; the “Alba Volán Székesfehérvár” ice hockey club plays in the Austrian league.

The city is the birthplace of the boat designer and builder Nándor Fa (born 1953), who sailed solo around the world three times; the Olympic champion in modern pentathlon, Zsuzsanna Vörös (born 1977), and the Hungarian chess champion and international grandmaster Krisztián Szabó (born 1989) were all born in the city.

The early days of musical life were closely linked to the requirements of the church liturgy: the first choir and the first band, which were supported by the cathedral chapter and the town, were established in the mid-18th century. A modern symphony orchestra was founded in 1837; it performed Beethoven’s oratorio in 1838, Mozart’s Requiem in 1842, and also Haydn’s masses.

The opera singer Miklós Szabó (1909–1999) was born in Stuhlweißenburg.

As the demands of church life, schools, the middle classes and the town and county administrations grew, the book trade also expanded significantly during the first half of the 18th century. In 1792, there were three bookbinders working in the town. The first printing works, founded in 1803 by Michael Sammer (d. 1806), a printer from Augsburg who had settledin Veszprém, began operations in 1806 and remained in business for several generations.

Today, the town has several television channels, radio stations and newspapers.

Born in Stuhlweißenburg were the poet and translator Sarolta Lányi (1891–1975), the writer and poet Ferenc Jankovich (1907–1971), the writer Péter Kuczka (1923–1999), the poet and writer Éva Ihász-Kovács (born 1930), the poet István Keszei (born 1935), and the poet and writer Erzsébet Stancsics (born 1944).

The city was home to the poet Mihály Vörösmarty (1800–1855), the poet János Vajda (1827–1897), the writer, journalist and teacher Dezső Szabó (1879–1945), the poet and translator Oszkár György (1882–1944), the poet Sándor Weöres (1913–1989) and the poet János Pilinszky (1921–1981).

The writer János Kodolányi (1899–1969) attended school in the town.

The ‘Medieval Ruins Garden’ is recognised as a national memorial site. The ‘Palaststadt’ open-air museum was awarded the Europa Nostra Prize. In 1993, the King Saint Stephen Museum was awarded the special prize in the UNESCO-organised ‘European Museum of the Year’ competition for its permanent archaeological exhibition.

Among the town’s numerous events, the Székesfehérvár Royal Days – Coronation Festival (Székesfehérvári Királyi Napok – Koronázási Ünnepi Játékok) are particularly noteworthy.

• Kornél Bárdos: *Székesfehérvár zenéje, 1688–1892* [The Music of Stuhlweißenburg, 1688–1892]. Budapest 1993.
• Péter Kovács, Károly Szelényi: Baroque in Székesfehérvár. Budapest, Veszprém 1993.
• Péter Kovács, Károly Szelényi: Székesfehérvár: The Coronation City. Budapest, Veszprém 1998.
• Gyula Lauschmann: The History of Székesfehérvár. Vol. 1. From the Conquest to the Expulsion of the Turks, 895–1688 [The History of Stuhlweißenburg. Vol. 1. From the Conquest to the Expulsion of the Turks, 895–1688]. Székesfehérvár 1993. Vol. 2. From the expulsion of the Turks to the end of the 18th century, 1688–1800 [Vol. 2. From the Expulsion of the Turks to the End of the 18th Century]. Székesfehérvár 1994. Vol. III. The Decades of Urban Bourgeoisification, 1801–1848. The National Struggle for Independence 1848–1849 [Vol. 3. The Decades of Urban Bourgeoisification 1801–1848. The National Struggle for Independence 1848–1849]. Székesfehérvár 1995. Vol. IV. From the Suppression of the Struggle for Independence to the First World War, 1848–1914 [Vol. 4. From the Suppression of the War of Independence to the First World War, 1848–1914]. Székesfehérvár 1996.
• László Lukács: Székesfehérvár: Ethnic Relations in the 18th–19th Centuries [The Ethnic Relations of Stuhlweißenburg in the 18th–19th Centuries]. In: Ethnographia 109 (1998/2), pp. 549–572,
• Gyula Siklósi: Adattár Székesfehérvár középkori és törökkori építészetéről [A collection of data on the medieval and Ottoman-era architecture of Stuhlweißenburg]. Székesfehérvár 1990, pp. 9–10 (German summary on pp. 105–106).
• Gyula Siklósi: The Medieval Fortifications, Castle Walls and City Walls of Székesfehérvár. Budapest 1999.
• Lajos Thirring: The Development and Composition of the Population of Székesfehérvár and Fejér County. In: *Magyar Statisztikai Szemle* (1938/3), pp. 217–218.
• Csaba Veress D., Gyula Siklósi: Székesfehérvár, the City of Kings. Budapest 1990.

• VÁR Literary and Public Life Journal [VÁR (CASTLE) Journal of Literature and Public Life], published by the Vörösmarty Society [Vörösmarty Társaság].
• Árgus Literary and Cultural Journal [Árgus].
• Karitász – Szolgáló Szeretet [Caritas – Serving Love], published by the Roman Catholic Church in Stuhlweißenburg.

• keptar.oszk.hu/html/kepoldal/index.phtml?id=17934 (the coat of arms of Stuhlweißenburg in the digital image archive of the Széchényi National Library)
• www.szekesfehervar.hu/ (the town’s official website, also available in English and German)
• www.youtube.com/watch?v=LUB1GWPJkmY (The Medieval Ruins Garden – National Memorial Site)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vGDyLXjkkZI (Stuhlweißenburg, city centre)

[1] For the Latin names, see: Gyula Siklósi: Adattár Székesfehérvár középkori és törökkori építészetéről [A collection of data on the medieval and Ottoman-era architecture of Stuhlweißenburg]. Székesfehérvár 1990, pp. 9–10.

[2] Gyula Kristó: On the Earliest Name of Székesfehérvár [On the Earliest Name of Stuhlweißenburg]. In: Gábor Farkas (ed.): The Historical Significance of the Basilica of Our Lady in Székesfehérvár. Proceedings of the academic conference held on 16 May 1996. (Publications on the history of the town of Székesfehérvár) [The historical significance of the Basilica of Our Lady in Stuhlweißenburg. The papers presented at the academic conference held on 16 May 1996. (Contributions to the History of the City of Stuhlweißenburg)]. Székesfehérvár, 1996, pp. 163–179, here p. 163.

[3] Siklósi: Adattár (note 1), p. 9.

[4] Siklósi: Adattár (note 1), p. 10.

[5] Kristó: Székesfehérvár (note 2), pp. 163–179, here p. 170.

[6] Kristó: Székesfehérvár (note 2), pp. 163–179, here pp. 172, 176.

[7] Csaba Veress D., Gyula Siklósi: *Székesfehérvár a királyok városa* [Székesfehérvár, the City of Kings]. Budapest 1990, p. 22.

[8] László Lukács: Székesfehérvár XVIII.–XIX. századi etnikai viszonyai [The Ethnic Relations of Székesfehérvár in the 18th–19th Centuries]. In: Ethnographia 109 (1998/2), pp. 549–572, here p. 552.

[9] Lukács: Székesfehérvár (note 8), p. 553.

[10] Lukács: Székesfehérvár (note 8), p. 553.

[11] Lukács: Székesfehérvár (note 8), p. 553.

[12] Lukács: Székesfehérvár (note 8), p. 554.

[13] Lukács: Székesfehérvár (note 8), p. 555.

[14] Lukács: Székesfehérvár (note 8), p. 558.

[15] Lajos Thirring: Székesfehérvár és Fejér megye népességének fejlődése és összetétele [The Development and Composition of the Population of Székesfehérvár and Fejér County]. In: Magyar Statisztikai Szemle (1938/3), pp. 217–218.

[16]nepesseg.com/fejer/szekesfehervar (last accessed: 12 March 2021).

[17] Lukács: Székesfehérvár (note 8), pp. 549–572, here p. 551.

[18] Lukács: Székesfehérvár (note 8), pp. 549–572, here p. 556.

Tünde Radek: Stuhlweißenburg/Székefehérvár. In: Online Encyclopaedia on the Culture and History of Germans in Eastern Europe, 2021. URL: ome-lexikon.uni-oldenburg.de/p32461 (as at 26 April 2021).