Gdańsk (formerly also known as Danzig)

Polish: Gdańsk

Kashubian: Gduńsk; Italian: Danzica; Lithuanian: Gdanskas; Latin: Gedanum (less commonly: Dantiscum)

The etymology is unclear. Today, it is generally assumed to be of Slavic origin, in which case ‘Gdańsk’ is thought to mean ‘a place situated on the River Gdania’. In the past, it was associated with the ‘Giötheschantz’ mentioned by Jordanes; in folk etymology, a connection to ‘dance/to dance’ persisted for a long time.

Gdańsk is situated at 54° 21′ north, 18° 39′ east.

Historically, the Greater Region is known as Pomorze Gdańskie (Gdańsk Pomerania) or – less commonly – Pomorze Nadwiślańskie (Vistula Pomerania) or Pomorze Wschodnie (Eastern Pomerania). In German, the term ‘Pommerellen’ is usually used. Historically, Gdańsk was part of Royal Prussia between 1454 and 1772, and subsequently part of West Prussia until 1920.

Today, Gdańsk is the capital of the Pomeranian Voivodeship (województwo pomorskie; a literal translation, though not corresponding to the German regional name: Pomerania Voivodeship). It is Poland’s sixth-largest city (2010: 457,000 inhabitants), is home to numerous academic and cultural institutions, and is the seat of a Catholic archdiocese.

The coat of arms of the city of Gdańsk features two white crosses on a red background (known in this form since 1368), to which a golden crown was added following Gdańsk’s transfer to Poland in 1454. The flag of the Free City of Gdańsk also featured this coat of arms – in the left-hand third – which was retained after 1945 with a modified crown.

In the 19th century, Gdańsk was often referred to as the ‘Nuremberg of the Baltic Sea’ or the ‘Venice of the North’ due to its ancient and picturesque architecture. In the 1980s and 1990s – as it was the centre of Solidarność – it was sometimes referred to as the ‘secret capital of Poland’; today it calls itself the ‘Amber Capital’ or the ‘City of Freedom’.

Gdańsk is one of Poland’s most important archaeological sites. During the initial phase of excavations, which began in 1948, work focused primarily on the area of the early medieval Slavic fortress, the remains of which were uncovered, along with the foundation walls of the Teutonic Order’s castle. Since 1987, numerous new excavation areas have been opened up. New dating methods have cast doubt on whether the Slavic castle already existed at the end of the 10th century; the earliest finds date from around 1060. As the latest finds date to the mid-12th century, it is also questionable whether a castle stood here continuously until 1308. However, the presence of a burnt layer was confirmed, which supports the theory that Danzig was destroyed in 1308. At the beginning of the 21st century, excavations beneath the market hall uncovered the foundations of a previously unknown predecessor to St Nicholas’ Church. Many of the finds are on display at the Archaeological Museum.

Danzig is first mentioned in the *Vita* of St Adalbert. On his missionary journey to the Prussians in 997, the bishop passed through the fishing village of ‘Gyddanyzc’, which at that time belonged, at least for a time, to the Polish Duke Bolesław Chrobry. It was not until 1116 that Polish rulers were finally able to subjugate and Christianise the area; their deputies led Pomerelia to independence as dukes at the beginning of the 13th century. The town, governed by German law, was perhaps founded as early as 1224, but more likely around 1263. Following the extinction of the ducal line, it changed hands several times. Duke Władysław Łokietek’s attempt to recapture Danzig with the support of the German Order failed; the knights of the Order turned against him and captured the town on 12–13 November 1308. A significant proportion of the inhabitants were killed in the process; the Order subsequently destroyed the castle and the town in order to deprive the Brandenburgers and Poles of a potential stronghold within its sphere of influence.

In the second half of the 16th century, Gdańsk was affected by the Polish-Swedish conflicts; trade on the Vistula was repeatedly hindered or blocked. Polish attempts to establish a royal fleet in Gdańsk were successfully thwarted for a long time. New efforts by the Crown to exert greater control over the city (the Statuta Karnkoviana, 1570) led to war against King Stefan Báthory, who had been elected in 1575: in 1577, his attempt to capture the city failed after a siege lasting several weeks. When Gustavus Adolphus threatened to occupy Danzig in 1626, the city called upon King Sigismund for help; the war dragged on until 1629. In the armistice, Sweden secured revenue from Danzig’s port duties. During the Second Northern War (1655–1660), Gdańsk remained on the Polish side despite heavy losses resulting from defence expenditure, levies, the disruption of trade on the Vistula and the devastation of the city’s surrounding countryside. Gdańsk was only able to stay out of the Great Northern War (1700–1721) by making large payments to the warring parties. In 1734, during the election of the king, it sided with Stanisław Leszczyński and defended him for weeks against the siege by his rival, Augustus III, and his Russian allies.

From the 1760s onwards, Prussia had been endeavouring to hinder Danzig’s trade; in 1772, it annexed the whole of Royal Prussia with the exception of Danzig and Thorn/Toruń. Encircled by customs barriers, the city suffered an economic catastrophe. Efforts to save the city’s constitution failed, and in 1793 Prussia occupied Danzig. Some citizens put up resistance, but this was quickly overcome. An uprising by a group of grammar school pupils also failed in 1797.

Under the Treaty of Versailles, Danzig, comprising an area of 1,952 square kilometres, was declared a Free City under the control of the League of Nations (officially established on 15 November 1920); Heinrich Sahm, an independent, served as President of the Senate for ten years. The political situation largely mirrored that in Germany; centre-right and centre-left coalitions alternated in power. Relations with Poland were strained; numerous disputes (Westerplatte, the ‘letterbox dispute’, etc.) were brought before the Council of the League of Nations in Geneva. After three years of DNVP-led government, the NSDAP won 50 per cent of the vote in the May 1933 elections; Hermann Rauschning became the new President of the Senate and initiated a rapprochement with Poland (he resigned at the end of 1934; his successor was Arthur Greiser). Due to League of Nations scrutiny, the process of ‘Gleichschaltung’ (political and cultural standardisation) progressed only slowly; in early general elections held in April 1935, the NSDAP achieved only 59.3 per cent of the vote, despite massive obstruction by the opposition. The remaining parties were successively banned by 1937. From autumn 1938 onwards, Germany repeatedly demanded the return of Danzig to the Reich. On 1 September 1939, the Second World War broke out with the shelling of the Polish munitions transit depot at Westerplatte – the Polish Post Office was seized by force of arms; the capture of Westerplatte took seven days. Danzig became part of the German Reich, the capital of the Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia (Gauleiter: Albert Forster) and, from December 1940, was known as the ‘Hanseatic City of Danzig’. Members of the Polish minority and Danzig opposition figures were detained at the Stutthof concentration camp, east of Danzig; in 1944, it was involved in the ‘Final Solution’ to the ‘Jewish question’ (65,000 fatalities, including 35,000 Jews). In March 1945, the Red Army encircled Danzig; during the capture, which lasted until 28 March, the historic city centre was largely destroyed.

Until 1308, Gdańsk was ruled by dukes, some of whom also resided in the city. During the Teutonic Order period, the Rechtstadt had a ‘Seated Council’ comprising the mayor, his deputy and twelve councillors, as well as the ‘General Council’, which represented the patriciate. In the 15th century, these two bodies merged to form the First Order, whilst the lay judges were added as the Second Order. Municipal life was governed by a code of laws known as the ‘Willkür’. The Old Town had its own council. In 1526, the ‘Statuta Sigismundi’ introduced a Third Estate comprising 100 members, divided into four quarters, to represent the people. Gdansk successfully resisted the king’s attempts to gain greater influence over the city administration as part of the 1569 territorial reform (incorporation of Royal Prussia) ( the ‘Statuta Karnkoviana’ of 1570).

From 1454 onwards, Danzig referred to itself as a ‘republic’. It possessed the right to send a representative to the Polish electoral diets and was actively involved in the Prussian Landtag. The Crown was represented in Danzig by a burgrave. The city had its own representatives in several states and maintained its own garrison. The administration of justice fell largely within the remit of the lay judges’ court.

At the beginning of the Prussian period, the Danzig magistrate was subordinate to the War and Domains Chamber in Marienwerder; in the Free City of Danzig (1807–1814), the three orders were reinstated. In 1815, the city became the capital of an administrative district and of the province of West Prussia (merged with East Prussia in 1823, and independent again from 1878). The magistrate was overseen by a city council (elected from 1853 onwards under the general three-class suffrage system).

The Free City of Danzig (1920–1939) was governed by a University Senate, presided over by a president elected by the ‘Volkstag’ (parliament); the League of Nations acted as head of state through a High Commissioner. Parts of the administration had been transferred to Poland (the railways) or internationalised (the port); Danzig became part of the Polish customs territory, but had its own currency (the guilder) from 1923 onwards. Following the dissolution of the Free City, Danzig regained local self-government in 1939.

In 1945, Danzig became the capital of the Danzig Voivodeship; immediately after its capture, work began on establishing a new Polish administration. The first (controlled) elections to the city parliament (“Municipal National Council”) took place in 1954. From 1973, there were once again mayors (“city presidents”), but it was not until 1990 that they could be freely elected. In 1999, following the regional reform, Gdańsk became the capital of the Pomerania Voivodeship.

During the time of the Duchy of Pomerelia, Danzig had a population of between 3,000 and 4,000, and at times perhaps as many as 10,000, and was presumably inhabited mainly by Slavic fishermen and craftsmen. There is evidence of German settlers from the 1220s onwards. Following its destruction in 1308, the town was repopulated mainly by immigrants from German-speaking regions. Around 1430, the population stood at approximately 20,000; it reached its peak at around 70,000 in the mid-17th century. The bourgeoisie spoke exclusively German (or Low German); immigrants from places such as Scotland, the Netherlands, England and Poland assimilated quickly. The thriving trade brought numerous foreigners – not just Poles – to Gdańsk. Polish church services were held for Polish-speaking residents and visitors; many sons of the bourgeoisie learnt Polish to prepare for their working lives. From the mid-17th century, the population stagnated; by the end of the 18th century, it had fallen to 35,000. It was not until around 1860 that the population reached 70,000 again; by 1915, it had grown to 192,000 (partly due to the incorporation of neighbouring areas) (1939: 250,000). The Polish minority had been organising itself since the 1870s, but remained very small (a few per cent). German continued to be the universal language of everyday use, with a declining proportion of Low German and the increasing prominence of the local dialect ‘Missingsch’. In the Free City, German was the official language; special regulations applied to the Polish language. For instance, Polish residents of Danzig were permitted to send their children to state schools where Polish was the language of instruction, and there were also Polish private schools. The proportion of Danzig citizens of Polish nationality was approximately 3.5 per cent; in addition, numerous Poles without a Danzig passport lived in Danzig. The Poles were always represented by their own deputies in the People’s Assembly.

Between 1945 and 1948, almost all Germans who had not fled before the end of hostilities were forced to resettle in Germany; the displaced organised themselves into various associations and societies. By 1948, 150,000 Poles had already migrated to Gdańsk, most of them from central Poland and 15–18 per cent from the former Polish eastern territories. The process of assimilating this foreign city took decades. Meanwhile, the city continued to grow and reached a population of approximately 460,000 by 2000. Ethnically, the population is very homogeneous; the German minority numbers only a few hundred. The Kashubians are of some significance.

In prehistoric times, Gdańsk was a centre for amber processing; an important trade route ran southwards from the mouth of the Vistula (the Amber Road). The river was one of the most important transport routes in medieval Central and Eastern Europe; grain, timber and timber products were transported downstream, whilst fish and salt – and soon luxury goods as well – were traded upstream. The port of Gdańsk grew in importance at the beginning of the 13th century. The city soon established itself as a centre of craft production. From 1260 onwards, a large annual fair (Dominik) was held.

During the Teutonic Order period, trade and craftsmanship continued to flourish, partly due to the high demand for timber and grain in Western Europe. Cloth and herring became increasingly important as imported goods. Gdańsk was widely renowned for its beer and its timber processing. In 1450, around 600 ships sailed under the Gdańsk flag. Grain exports reached their peak in the mid-17th century. Transport was now largely carried out by Dutch ships. Thanks to the staple right, Danzig merchants reaped profits even when they were not directly involved in the resale. Danzig was of immense economic importance to Poland; around 1600, three-quarters of Poland’s foreign trade passed through the city. In the manufacturing sector, cloth-making at times took on great importance; goldsmiths, silversmiths, amber carvers and cabinetmakers also enjoyed considerable success. From the Second Northern War onwards, the volume of goods handled – and with it prosperity – declined sharply, before collapsing entirely by the end of the 18th century. The Prussian period saw a gradual recovery, although trade lost importance in the 19th century, whilst industry, services and administration became more significant. To improve loading facilities, the harbour was expanded and gradually relocated to Neufahrwasser, directly at the mouth of the Vistula. Between 1871 and 1913, cargo throughput grew significantly; before the First World War, Danzig was the fifth-largest port on the Baltic Sea. A connection to the Prussian Eastern Railway had existed since 1852. The largest industrial enterprises were the shipyards (the Royal, later Imperial, Shipyard was founded in 1850, and the Schichau Shipyard in 1889); efforts to accelerate industrialisation met with little success at the end of the 19th century.

The Free City (1920–1939) suffered from political antagonism with Poland, a shrinking market and the construction of the nearby Polish port of Gdynia; nevertheless, parts of the industrial sector found new markets in Poland. The banking sector flourished until 1923; hyperinflation was brought to an end with the introduction of the gulden in September 1923. The budget could only be financed through substantial government borrowing. In 1933, the unemployment rate stood at over 20 per cent. The NSDAP managed to reduce this rate through employment programmes; however, excessive debt forced a 42 per cent devaluation of the gulden in 1935. During the Second World War, the shipyards switched to arms production.

After the war, Danzig was developed as an industrial centre (shipyards, supply industry); the port was also systematically expanded, for example, from the 1970s onwards with the Nordhafen directly on Danzig Bay. At the same time, the city developed into an administrative and educational centre. After 1990, the port retained its importance, whilst the role of industry (including the shipyards) declined and the service sector grew strongly. Improved transport links (airport, motorway) provided new economic impetus. Tourism became an important source of income. Following Poland’s accession to the EU, the unemployment rate fell sharply; funding from the EU Structural Funds enabled numerous infrastructure investments.

From the 14th century onwards, merchants set the tone in Gdańsk. On several occasions, stable constellations of council-going families emerged over many decades; these families divided the most important positions amongst themselves and gradually withdrew from day-to-day economic affairs. Social tensions frequently arose, mostly because craftsmen or merchants accused the council of high-handedness and mismanagement. As early as 1456, an uprising led by the merchant Martin Kogge failed; in the 1520s, new conflicts broke out. As in 1673–1675, these were triggered by denominational issues; other outbreaks of unrest (around 1650, 1677, 1748–1752) centred on demands for greater political participation.

In the 19th century, the social structure changed rapidly as a result of immigration from the surrounding area. The number of workers rose, leading to labour disputes; even in the interwar period, a latent conflict between workers and the middle classes persisted. After 1945, Gdańsk was re-established as a working-class city; a middle class developed only slowly, whilst the educated classes remained small and poorly connected.

Gdańsk was temporarily Christianised in 997; however, a lasting process of Christianisation did not begin until the early 12th century, when Duke Bolesław III Krzywousty (Crooked-Mouth) placed it under the jurisdiction of the Diocese of Leslau/Włocławek. Around 1178, the Cistercian monastery of Oliva/Oliwa was founded. The city developed into a religious centre with numerous churches and monasteries. The Reformation reached the city around 1520 (royal charter granting freedom of worship was granted in 1557). By 1650, approximately 87 per cent of the inhabitants were Lutherans, 6 per cent were Calvinists and 7 per cent were Catholics. From 1612 onwards, only Lutherans were permitted to hold public office. The number of Catholics grew steadily – by 1800 it had already reached around 20 per cent, and by 1910 it stood at 33 per cent. In 1925, the Diocese of Oliva was established for the Free City. For a long time, Jews were not granted the right of residence in Danzig, but many lived in the suburbs outside the city limits; Mennonites were permitted to settle in Danzig upon payment of a protection fee. These restrictions were lifted in the 19th century. In 1910, 1.4 per cent of the population were of the Jewish faith. From 1933 onwards, Jews were discriminated against; in 1939–40, the Jewish community organised the collective emigration of around 90 per cent of Danzig’s Jews. After 1945, the new population of Gdańsk was largely Catholic; no church remained in Protestant hands. In addition, congregations of the Orthodox and Catholic-Orthodox (Uniate) Churches were established; in 1990, a mosque was opened in Oliva and, after a hiatus of several decades, the Jewish community was also re-established.

Books were collected in Gdańsk in various libraries, including, from 1596, in the Council Library, which later became the City Library; most of its holdings were preserved in 1945 (today: the Gdańsk Library of the Polish Academy of Sciences). The State Archives, on the other hand, suffered significant losses. In 1870, a city museum was opened in the former Franciscan monastery (now the National Museum). The State Regional Museum of Gdańsk History in Oliva was destroyed in 1945. Today, the city is home to, amongst others, a City History Museum and a Central Maritime Museum; a Museum of the Second World War and the International Solidarność Centre are currently under construction.

The theatre scene flourished in the 18th century thanks to touring troupes; in 1801, the City Theatre was opened, which was to serve as the cultural centre for more than a century. It was expanded into the State Theatre in 1935. During the Polish People’s Republic, Gdańsk gained a theatre (new building in 1967), an opera house, an art college and a conservatoire; construction of a Shakespeare Theatre has been underway since 2011.

There is evidence of schools in Gdańsk dating back to the 14th century; the grammar school was founded in 1558 (known as the ‘Academic Grammar School’ from 1643). In 1621, a Jesuit college was established in Alt Schottland, outside the city. In the Middle Ages, the sons of Gdańsk’s burghers tended to attend the universities of Erfurt, Vienna, Kraków and Leipzig; after the Reformation, they mostly moved to Wittenberg, Heidelberg and Königsberg/Kaliningrad. The Society for Natural History was founded in 1734. Notable early modern historians from Danzig include Caspar Schütz and Joachim Pastorius, as well as Gottfried Lengnich, who also made a name for himself as a lawyer. The astronomer Johannes Hevelius gained international renown.

In the 19th century, a Royal Grammar School was established alongside the Municipal Grammar School. From 1879 onwards, the West Prussian Historical Society made a significant contribution to regional historiography; Theodor Hirsch and Paul Simson were the most important local historians. In 1904, Wilhelm II opened the Technical University, which was expanded in the Free City to include a Faculty of Humanities; it was re-established in 1945 as the ‘Politechnika’. The College of Education, founded in 1946, was upgraded to university status in 1970. In addition, colleges of music, art and sport were established, as were private higher education institutions in the 1990s.

Until the end of the 14th century, residential buildings were predominantly made of timber or half-timbered; thereafter, construction was mainly carried out using bricks. As large parts of the city were built on damp ground, it was not possible to construct deep cellars; stairs and small terraces led up to the ground floors, which were therefore situated higher up, and from these developed the artistically decorated ‘Beischläge’ typical of Danzig in the Early Modern period. In the early modern period, bourgeois life was increasingly restricted by regulations governing luxury, for example regarding the form and scale of family celebrations or the clothing permitted for different occupational groups (social discipline). The social life of the upper middle classes centred on the bankers’ guilds, which met at the Artushof (until 1742); the trade guilds were also of great importance. From the 18th century onwards, a diverse range of associations began to develop. The poorer sections of the population lived in dwellings that were sometimes cramped and dark, had only limited access to fresh water; in many cases, waste was disposed of directly onto the streets. As the city was struck by several severe cholera epidemics in the 19th century, a modern sewerage system (the first on the European mainland) and a drinking water supply were constructed in the 1870s.

During the Middle Ages and the early modern period, Gdańsk was of paramount importance for the development of art and architecture in north-eastern and eastern Central Europe, particularly due to its role as a bridge between East and West. It established itself as a centre of prestigious civic building projects, such as St Mary’s Church, on which work began in 1343. Most of the other churches in the historic districts are also examples of Brick Gothic – St John’s, the Old Town parish church of St Catherine’s, and the monastery churches of St Nicholas and St Brigid, the construction of which was largely completed by around 1500. The works of art inside the churches date not only from the Gothic period but also, in many cases, from the Renaissance and Baroque periods. Hans Memling’s altarpiece *The Last Judgement*, which was captured in the 15th century, was displayed in St Mary’s for centuries; today it can be viewed in the National Museum.

In the early modern period, churches were centres of bourgeois musical culture; the choir at St Mary’s, in particular, performed to a high standard. Among its choirmasters, Andreas Hakenberger and Johann B. Chr. Freißlich, for example, made a name for themselves. The musical life of the 19th century was underpinned by various orchestras, including military bands; numerous touring virtuosos visited the town. The leading composer of the period was Friedrich Wilhelm Markull. After 1945, a diverse musical scene developed, which included a jazz scene that was, at times, very vibrant.

The first printing took place in Danzig in 1498; several printing works were subsequently established, including the City Council’s printing works. Printed newspapers have been published in Danzig since 1618, and from the mid-18th century onwards numerous moral weekly periodicals appeared; the production of leaflets was also very extensive at times. In the 19th century, a modern press industry developed; key publications included the liberal *Danziger Zeitung* (from 1858) and the national-liberal *Danziger Neuesten Nachrichten* (from 1894). Gdańsk’s publishing houses had no national significance. After 1945, the *Dziennik Bałtyki* established itself as the leading daily newspaper; as for publishers, alongside Wydawnictwo Morskie, the publishing house *słowo/obraz terytoria* has made a name for itself nationwide since the 1990s.

Danzig had never been a centre of literary creation, but during the Baroque period it managed to attract a number of significant poets for a time, such as Martin Opitz, who spent the final years of his life here. Many writers worked as teachers at the Akademisches Gymnasium. In the 19th century, authors had opportunities to publish in local newspapers, a chance taken up by writers such as Wilhelm Schumacher and Walter Domansky. The best-known poet from Danzig was the playwright Max Halbe, who was born south of the city but never lived there for any length of time. During the interwar period, a number of talented poets emerged (e.g. Willibald Omankowski); Stanisław Przybyszewski also worked here for several years. The *Ostdeutsche Monatshefte*, founded by Carl Lange, developed into a prestigious cultural journal.

Danzig only gained literary significance with Günter Grass (Nobel Prize in Literature 1999), whose Danzig-set novel *The Tin Drum* caused a sensation in 1959. Its reception in Danzig in the 1980s played a decisive role in the younger generation’s rediscovery of the city’s foreign, German past; Paweł Huelle and Stefan Chwin, two Polish writers who had gained nationwide recognition, followed in Grass’s footsteps.

During the republican era, Danzig had its own garrison, which was reinforced in times of war; there was also a militia. In the 19th century, it became a Prussian garrison town and was home to numerous regiments; at times, the Prussian Navy was stationed here. In 1891, Danzig became the headquarters of the XVII Army Corps and was given a military academy. During the interwar period, Danzig was demilitarised; in 1925, Poland was able to establish a temporary ammunition depot on the Westerplatte peninsula.

Numerous aspects of Gdańsk’s history have been a subject of dispute in the past between German and Polish historiography (and politics). These included, for example, the conquest of Gdańsk by the Teutonic Order in 1308. Whilst German historians maintained that only a few knights had lost their lives in the process, Polish historians took the view that thousands of inhabitants had been murdered and the city destroyed. Archaeology and medieval studies have recently lent weight to the ‘Polish’ view with sound arguments.^[1]

Historiography was also divided on the constitutional relationship between Danzig and Poland. Whilst the German side sought to portray the city as being as autonomous as possible, the Polish side emphasised its close ties to the Crown. New research confirms the city’s pragmatic policy, which was adapted to the circumstances of the time.

In the People’s Republic of Poland, the destruction of 1945 was long attributed to the Germans; after 1989, the blame was placed on the Red Army. It has since become clear that various factors were decisive – wanton destruction by Red Army soldiers as well as raging fires in the abandoned city.

• Jan Baszanowski: Przemiany demograficzne w Gdańsku w latach 1601–1846 [Demographic Change in Gdańsk between 1601 and 1846]. Gdańsk 1995.
• Maria Bogucka: Old Gdańsk. Everyday Life from the 15th to the 17th Century. Translated from the Polish by Eduard Merian. Munich 1987.
• Edmund Cieślak (ed.): Historia Gdańska [History of Gdańsk]. 5 vols. Gdańsk, Sopot 1978–[1999].
• Jacek Friedrich: A New City in Old Garb. The Reconstruction of Danzig 1945–1960. Translated from the Polish by Heidemarie Petersen. Cologne et al. 2010 (Visual Historical Culture 4).
• Gottfried Lengnich: *Ius publicum civitatis Gedanensis*, or: The Constitution and Rights of the City of Gdańsk. Based on the original manuscript in the Gdańsk City Archives. Edited by Otto Günther. Gdańsk 1900 (Sources and Accounts of the History of West Prussia).
• Peter Oliver Loew: Danzig and its Past, 1793–1997. The History of a City between Germany and Poland. Osnabrück 2003 (Individual Publications of the German Historical Institute in Warsaw 9).
• Peter Oliver Loew: Literary Danzig, 1793 to 1945. Building blocks for a local cultural history. Frankfurt am Main et al. 2009 (Danzig Contributions to German Studies 25).
• Peter Oliver Loew: Gdańsk. A Biography of a City. Munich 2011.
• Henryk Paner (ed.): Gdańsk średniowieczny w świetle najnowszych badań archeologicznych i historycznych [Medieval Gdańsk in the Light of the Latest Archaeological and Historical Research]. Gdańsk 1998.
• Paul Simson: History of the City of Gdańsk. 3 vols. Gdańsk 1913–1918.
• Jarosław Załęcki: The Social Space of Gdańsk in the Consciousness of its Inhabitants. A Sociological Study. Gdańsk 2003.

• www.herder-institut.de/bildkatalog/wikidata/Q1792 (Images of Danzig from the Herder Institute’s image archive, Marburg)

[1] Błażej Śliwiński: The Massacre and Destruction of Gdańsk by the German Knights in 1308. Gdańsk 2006.

Peter Oliver Loew: Danzig/Gdańsk. In: Online Encyclopaedia on the Culture and History of Germans in Eastern Europe, 2012. URL: ome-lexikon.uni-oldenburg.de/p32367 (as at 30 July 2021).