Pomeranians, West Pomeranians

Polish: Pomorze Nadwiślańskie, Pomorze Gdańskie, Pomorze Wschodnie; Latin: Pomeralia; Kashubian: Pòrénkòwô, Pòmòrskô

Pommerellen is a diminutive form of Pomerania (Polish: Pomorze). West Prussia refers to the province that was annexed by Prussia following the First and Second Partitions of Poland.

In the German tradition, Pomerelia stretches along the Baltic coast, to the west of the lower Vistula. The southern border ran near the RiverNoteć, the eastern border along the Vistula and its delta, whilst the western border was subject to shifts and lay between the Parsęta and the border of the Prussian province of West Prussia as defined in 1772.

In the Polish tradition, Pomorze Nadwiślańskie also encompasses areas on the right bank of the Vistula as far as the line formed by the rivers Sorge (Dzierzgoń), Liebe (Liwa), Ossa (Osa) and Passarge (Pasłęka).

The region forms part of the Baltic Ridge. To the west of Pomerell lies the eastern part of the Pomeranian Lake District.

Pomerelia was probably brought under the rule of Mieszko I (d. 992); during the 11th–13th centuries, periods of independence alternated with periods of affiliation with Poland. At the beginning of the 14th century, the German Order conquered Pomerelia and incorporated it into the Order’s state; in 1466, it fell to Poland once again. Following the Partitions of Poland, the territory became part of Prussia. Between 1807 and 1815, part of the region was incorporated into the Duchy of Warsaw; in 1815, these territories reverted to Prussia. In 1919, Pomerelia became part of Poland. From 1939 to 1945, Pomerelia was part of the Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia; since 1945, it has belonged to Poland.

Since the mid-15th century, the coat of arms of the Pomerelia Voivodeship has featured a red griffin facing right on a silver background. In the Second Polish Republic, it was a red griffin facing left, wearing a golden crown, on a white background. The present-day Pomerania Voivodeship (Pomorze) draws on the coat of arms of Kashubia and features a black griffin facing right on a golden background.

The oldest traces of human habitation date from the 11th–10th millennia BC, whilst the first settlements date from the 5th–4th millennia BC. Around the 13th/12th century BC, the Lusatian culture (East Pomeranian or Kashubian group) emerged, from which the so-called Pomerellian Face Urn culture developed. In the 2nd century BC, the Oksywie culture developed, from which, probably under the influence of the Goths, the Wielbark culture emerged. The 6th–7th centuries saw the migration of the Slavs, and the first urban settlements and castles emerged during the 7th–8th centuries.

In the *Dagome Iudex*, Pomerelia was mentioned as part of Mieszko I’s realm. Pomerelia, which had been independent in the 11th century, was conquered by the Polish King Bolesław III the Wry-mouthed between 1113 and 1119 and became a Polish province, divided into three principalities. Exceptions were the area along the Netze (Krajna) and the area around Wyszogród (a castle in the vicinity of Bromberg/Bydgoszcz, in the Fordon district), which were assigned to Greater Poland (Wielkopolska) and Kuyavia (Kujawy). Following the death of Bolesław III and the division of Poland amongst his sons, Pomerelia came under the rule of the senior prince. In 1227, following the death of Leszek the White, the princes of the Samborid dynasty were granted autonomy. This marked the division of the entire Baltic coast into a western part – Pomerania, where the Griffin dynasty ruled – and an eastern part – Pomerelia. Mestwin II, the last of this dynasty, concluded a treaty in 1282 with the Greater Polish prince Przemysł II at Kempen/Kępno, so that after his death in 1294, Pomerelia came under the rule of the latter. Between 1296 and 1306, the region was ruled in turn by Władysław Łokietek (Ellenlang), Wenceslaus II and Wenceslaus III. On behalf of the Polish kings, the Gdańsk voivode Swenzo and his son Peter of Neuenburg administered Pomerelia. In 1308, Swenzo handed Pomerelia over to Brandenburg, which led to a conflict with Poland. The Polish side called upon the German Order for assistance; the Order occupied the territory in 1308–1309 and incorporated it into its own state. Władysław Łokietek and his son Kazimierz Wielki (Casimir the Great) attempted to regain the territory. The trial in Inowrazlaw/Inowrocław (1320–1321) before the papal court initially went in Poland’s favour, but the Pope did not confirm the judgement. Neither the war against the German Order (1326–1332) nor the second trial in Warsaw in 1339 proved successful. In 1343, under the Peace of Kalisz, Casimir the Great renounced Pomerelia and the Chełmno Land (Ziemia Chełmińska), whilst Kuyavia and the Dobrzyń Land (Ziemia Dobrzyńska) were assigned to Poland. Under the terms of the First Peace of Toruń in 1411, Pomerelia remained part of the German Order’s state, but the Order’s crisis led many towns and representatives of the landed nobility to pay homage to the Polish king. In 1440, the opposition to the German Order founded the Prussian Confederation. In 1454, an uprising broke out, and the Prussian Confederation petitioned Kazimierz Jagiellończyk to have this territory incorporated into Poland. The incorporation led to the Thirteen Years’ War, which ended with the Second Peace of Toruń in 1466. Prussia was incorporated into the Kingdom of Poland as a royal possession – it consisted of the voivodeships of Pomerelia, Chełmno and Malbork, as well as the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia (Biskupstwo Warmińskie).

Pomerelia within the provinces of Poland
(18th-century English map)
[Map: Wikimedia Commons].

RoyalPrussia enjoyed autonomy within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth – it was governed by a council composed of representatives of the Prussian estates, which was subordinate to the Polish king. The king was represented by a governor of Prussian origin. The region retained its own currency and finances. Decisions on the most important matters were taken by the Provincial Diet (Ogólne Zgromadzenie Stanów), which consisted of the Provincial Chamber and the Municipal Chamber. At the beginning of the 16th century, the two-chamber Prussian Provincial Parliament (Prowincjonalny Sejm Pruski) was established. The Union of Lublin in 1569 abolished autonomy and introduced a real union. Deputies and senators from Royal Prussia took part in the deliberations of the Polish Parliament, whilst the Prussian Estates became the provincial parliament (Sejmik Generalny). A delegation from Danzig protested to King Sigismund the Old against the provisions of the Union of Lublin and against the plan to establish a Polish naval fleet. In return for a compensation payment, the decision to station the fleet in Danzig/Gdańsk was abandoned, and the city retained its privileges. A renewed conflict arose in 1577 when Gdańsk refused to pay homage to the newly elected Polish King Stephen Báthory until he had confirmed the city’s privileges. Gdańsk was unsuccessfully besieged by Báthory’s troops.

Following the First Partition of Poland in 1772, Pomerelia, excluding Gdańsk and Toruń, was annexed to the Kingdom of Prussia; the two cities were subsequently incorporated in 1793. Pomerelia became part of the Province of West Prussia, which comprised the territory of the Royal Prussian domain—excluding Ermland (which was assigned to East Prussia )—as well as the area around Marienwerder/Kwidzyn (which became the provincial capital) and the Netze District. Following the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807, the areas around Toruń, Kulm and Bromberg were assigned to the Duchy of Warsaw. In 1815, this territory reverted to Prussia. Frederick William III (1770–1840) reorganised the administration of the province – two administrative districts were created, Danzig and Marienwerder, which were subdivided into counties. Theodor von Schön (1773–1856) was appointed Chief President. In 1823, the King granted the province a provincial parliament, which had only an advisory role. In 1829, West and East Prussia were merged to form the Province of Prussia. Königsberg became the capital, and the provincial parliament held its sessions alternately in Danzig and Königsberg. From 1878, West Prussia once again became a separate province.

West Prussia and the Bay of Danzig (1896)
[Map: Wikimedia Commons].

Under the Treaty of Versailles, Pomerellia became part of Poland in 1919. The western territories of West Prussia (German Krone/Wałcz, Flatow/Złotów and Schlochau/Chłuchów) and the eastern territories (Marienwerder, Elbing/Elbląg, Marienburg/Malbork, Rosenberg/Susz and Stuhm/Sztum) remained part of Germany. Pomerelia and the Kulm region formed the Pomeranian Voivodeship (Województwo pomorskie) with its capital at Thorn. The Polish administration was organised by General Józef Haller in January 1920. Stefan Łaszewski was appointed as the first voivode. As a result of the administrative reform of 1938, four counties from the Greater Poland Voivodeship and four from the Warsaw Voivodeship were incorporated into the Pomerelia Voivodeship, whilst the county of Soldau (Działdowo) was assigned to the Warsaw Voivodeship.

Following the German invasion of Poland in 1939, the voivodeship (with the exception of four counties) was annexed to the German Reich as part of the Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia.

In January 1945, the Red Army launched its offensive and by May had occupied the entire region. Divided into several voivodeships, it once again became part of Poland. Since 1999, it has formed part of the Pomeranian Voivodeship (Województwo pomorskie) and the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship (Województwo kujawsko-pomorskie).

From the Migration Period (Slavic migration) up to the 14th century, the population was predominantly Slavic. The Teutonic Order carried out an intensive settlement programme; the settlers came from German territories (among others, Frisian and Dutch groups were settled in the Vistula lowlands) and from Poland (including from Masovia/Mazowsze).

According to R. Böckh, in 1831 there were 532,127 Germans and 228,314 Poles living in the region of West Prussia; by 1852, the figures had risen to 690,859 Germans and 360,314 Poles.^[1]

Ethnic composition of the province of West Prussia by language at the turn of the 19th to the 20th century:^[2]

Population composition by religious affiliation:^[3]

In the 19th century, there was a significant wave of migration, initially to the Kingdom of Poland and to Russia (primarily the Mennonites), and later to the USA. From the 1870s onwards, migration within Germany became increasingly significant.

Population composition of the Pomerellian Voivodeship according to the 1921 and 1931 censuses:^[4]

German occupation policy led to an increase in the number of Germans in the Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia. After 1945, as a result of flight, expulsion and resettlement, the German population moved predominantly to West Germany, whilst in Pomerelia, Poles from the former Polish eastern territories, amongst others, were resettled.

Pommerellen’s location at the mouth of the Vistula made it an important trading region. In early times, the Amber Road ran through this area, and contact was maintained via the Baltic Sea. Trade in cloth, salt, furs, honey, amber, timber and grain was conducted via the Hanseatic cities of Gdańsk, Elbing and Toruń. Agriculture became important in the region; grain cultivation developed particularly in the Vistula lowlands and the Kulm region.

As a result of the Partitions of Poland, the port cities of Danzig and Elbing were temporarily cut off from their hinterland, which served as a source of goods, leading to their temporary decline.

The agricultural reforms implemented in Prussia at the beginning of the 19th century also extended to West Prussia. Industrial expansion remained limited throughout the 19th century; the sectors that developed were predominantly those linked to agriculture, and this situation remained unchanged even after 1918.

From the beginning of the 19th century, the shipbuilding industry developed in Danzig and remained significant even after the Second World War. After 1918, Danzig regained its importance as a port city; however, the construction of a port in Gdingen/Gdynia led to a shift in Polish foreign trade.

The November Uprising (1830) also led to the development of the Polish national movement in West Prussia. Preparations for the uprising of 1845–1846 extended to this region as well; furthermore, assistance was provided in 1848 to the Poles fighting in the Grand Duchy of Posen. Among those who championed the use of the Polish language and the strengthening of Polish identity were Christoph Cölestin Mrongovius (Krzysztof Celestyn Mrongowiusz, 1764–1855), Gustav Gisevius (Gustaw Gizewiusz, 1810–1848) and Natalis Sulerzyski (1801–1878), amongst others, championed the use of the Polish language and the strengthening of Polish identity. In the second half of the 19th century, numerous Polish cultural and economic institutions were established as part of the so-called ‘organic movement’, such as the Polish Agronomic Society (Towarzystwo Agronomiczne Polskie), the Scientific Society (Towarzystwo Naukowe in Toruń, the Credit Society forIndustrialists/Towarzystwo Pożyczkowe dla Przemysłowców in Brodnica/Strasbourg, Bank for Agriculture andIndustry (Bank Rolniczo-Przemysłowy ) in Prussian Stargard (Starogard Gdański), and the Pomeranian Society for Scientific Assistance (Pomorskie Towarzystwo Pomocy Naukowej ) in Chełmno. Polish-language newspapers and magazines appeared, such as *Przyjaciel Ludu* (Friend of the People), *Nadwiślanin* (Man of the Vistula), *Gazeta Toruńska* (Toruń Gazette) and *Gazeta Grudziądzka* (Grudziądz Gazette).

The Prussian government sought to counteract this development by strengthening ‘German identity’. During the 19th century, there was also a growing interest in Kashubian culture and the development of the Kashubian movement.

After the First World War, the Germans in the Pomerellian Voivodeship became a national minority. Fears about a future within the Polish state and the Polish government’s harsh policies towards the German minority led many people to emigrate to Germany. The Germans who remained were very active politically and socially, and their economic standing also remained significant. Among their most important political, economic and cultural organisations and institutions were the Deutschtumsbund for the Protection of Minority Rights (later the German Association for the Sejm and University Senate), the German Association for Western Poland, the Landbund Weichselgau, the Coppernicus Association, the German Natural Sciences Association and the Deutsches Heim in Thorn. Numerous German-language newspapers and magazines were published, including the *Pommereller Tageblatt*, *Konitzer Tageblatt*, *Culmer Zeitung*, *Weichselpost*, *Der Landbund* and *Mitteilungen des Coppernicusvereins*. There were two German grammar schools: a state-run one in Toruń and a private one in Graudenz/Grudziądz.

The first attempts to Christianise Pomerelia took place in the 10th/11th century. In 1148, Pomerellia was assigned to the diocese of Leslau/Włocławek. In 1188, Duke Sambor of Gdańsk founded the first monastery in Oliva/Oliwa, where the tombs of the Pomerellian dukes are located.

From the second half of the 16th century, the Reformation gained an ever-increasing number of followers. In the 16th century, Mennonites (known as ‘Hauländer’) were settled in the Vistula lowlands. After 1772, many Mennonites emigrated to North America and Russia to avoid Prussian military service.

The union of the Protestant churches carried out in 1817 met with strong resistance in West Prussia. As a result of persecution, followers of the Old Lutheran Church were often forced to emigrate.

The Prussian government’s policy of Germanisation affected not only schools but also the church, where the teaching of religious education in German was promoted. The Catholic Church, to which the predominantly Polish population belonged, offered particular resistance to this. The so-called Kulturkampf was also directed against the Catholic Church in West Prussia; the aim was not only to reduce the Church’s influence in society but also to combat the Polish national movement.

After the First World War, the Pomerellian Voivodeship was home not only to the Catholic Church but also to Evangelical United, Evangelical Augsburg and Old Lutheran congregations, as well as smaller Jewish and Orthodox communities.

Among the most important museums dedicated to regional history are the National Museum and the Maritime Museum in Gdańsk, the City Museum in Toruń, the Teutonic Order castles in Marienburg and Marienwerder, and the Museum of Kashubian-Pomeranian Literature and Music (Muzeum piśmiennictwa i muzyki kaszubsko-pomorskiej ) in Neustadt/Wejherowo.

The most important archives include the State Archives in Gdańsk (founded in 1901 as the Royal State Archives for West Prussia), the Elbing State Archives, based in Malbork, and the State Archives in Toruń.

The most important libraries are the Library of the Polish Academy of Sciences (Biblioteka Polskiej Akademii Nauk) in Gdańsk, the Municipal Library (Książnica Miejska) in Toruń (founded in 1923 from the collections of the Library of the Scientific Society, the Copernicus Society, the Toruń Grammar School and the Town Council Library), the Cyprian Norwid Library in Elbląg Cyprian Norwid, with its valuable collections from the City Library and the Elbląg Grammar School Library, as well as the university libraries in Toruń and Gdańsk.

The grammar schools in Kulm (founded in 1473), Elbing (1535), Danzig (1558) and Thorn (1568) were renowned for their high standards. At the end of the 14th century, attempts were made in vain to establish a university in Culm/Chełmno; it was not until the mid-18th century that a branch of the Jagiellonian University (Krakow/Kraków) was opened there. Universities were established in Toruń in 1945 and in Gdańsk in 1970, the latter having already had a technical university since 1904.

In 1925, the Baltic Institute (Instytut Bałtycki) was founded in Toruń to research the region’s Polish past. After the Second World War, the Institute resumed its activities, and has been based in Gdańsk since 1950. Its work focuses on Polish-Scandinavian and Polish-German relations, contemporary history and issues relating to economic cooperation in the Baltic Sea region.

The old town of Culm/Chełmno with its town hall in the ‘
’ Renaissance style (2008) [Photo: Margoz].

The privileged status of Danzig, Elbing and Thorn, both within the Teutonic Order and in Royal Prussia, the region’s role as a commercial centre, and the influence of the Reformation meant that the bourgeoisie made a significant contribution to cultural development. Consequently, the most important artistic monuments date from the Gothic and Renaissance periods. Among the oldest Gothic buildings are the churches of St Nicholas and St Catherine in Gdańsk, built in the 13th century. Examples of late Gothic and Renaissance sculpture include the figures of St George by Hans Brand and St Reinhold by Adrian Karfycz in the Artus Court in Gdańsk. Numerous Renaissance sculptures were produced in the workshops of the Toruń sculptors. Painting during this period was influenced by Dutch art. The most important examples of Renaissance architecture (also showing visible Dutch influences) are the Town Hall and the Graudenz Gate in Culm. The first Baroque influences can be seen in the church endowed by Stanisław Sokoławski and in the Reformed monastery in Podgórz (now a district of Toruń), as well as in the Church of St Anne in Neustadt.

The first printed work originating from the region appeared in Marienburg in 1492. The first printing works was probably opened in Culm in the 1470s, although the first documented establishment of a printing works took place in 1498 in Gdańsk (Konrad Baumgarten). In the 16th century, Franz Rhode (d. 1559) opened another printing works in Gdańsk, Wolfgang Dietmar founded the first printing works in Elbing, and Erazm Gliczner (1585–1603) founded the first in Toruń.

In the 18th century, Gdańsk, Toruń, Elbing (with a branch of Gottlieb Lebrecht Hartung’s [1747–1797] Königsberg publishing house) and Marienwerder (with a branch of Johann Jacob Kanter’s [1738–1786] Königsberg printing works) became centres for printing and the press.

In the 19th century, a number of figures in German Romantic poetry and drama, such as Abraham Friedrich Blech (1762–1830) and Otto Friedrich Gruppe (1804–1876), were active. Among the most important contemporary writers are Günter Grass (1927–2015), Paweł Huelle and Stefan Chwin.^[7]

Grudziądz Fortress (2007)
[Photo: AlexKazakhov].

After 1772, Frederick II had a fortress built 1.5 km north of Graudenz; following the Second Partition of Poland, the fortresses of Danzig and Thorn were assigned to Prussia. Both towns became important garrison towns in the 19th century. Between 1899 and 1903, the Marienburg Fortress was built to secure the Vistula crossing on the Berlin–Königsberg railway line. The fortresses at Marienburg, Graudenz, Thorn and Culm formed the so-called ‘Lower Vistula Line’. After the First World War, Polish units were stationed in Toruń and Graudenz; the Free City of Danzig was demilitarised, with Poland maintaining only an ammunition depot on Westerplatte.

The region is a tourist destination, both for its natural beauty and its eventful history. Gdańsk is considered a major tourist attraction. Among the numerous monuments of medieval architecture well worth seeing are the castle in Malbork and the Toruń town complex (both UNESCO World Heritage Sites), the castles in Marienwerder and Mewe/Gniew, and the old town of Culm.

Pommerellen’s relationship with Prussia and Poland has been the subject of controversy in the past. Nationalist Prussian-German historiography regarded the region as part of the possessions of the Teutonic Order and the Prussian state, which was portrayed as its successor; this served to emphasise the cultural heritage of the Teutonic Order and Prussia.^[8] The nationalist Polish historiography of the 1920s and 1930s portrayed this region as a traditionally Polish part of Pomerania. The loyalty of the towns of Royal Prussia to the Polish kings was cited as an argument for the region’s Polish character; the role of the German-speaking population was described as less significant.^[9] In this context, the issue of national relations in the area was a matter of controversy. More recent studies seek to offer a different perspective on the region’s past and the identity issues faced by its population.^[10] In this vein, when discussing, for example, the history of Royal Prussia, emphasis is placed on the significance of class affiliation and the regional identity of the population living there.^[11]

• Sabine Beckmann, Klaus Garber (eds.): Cultural History of the Royal Prussian Part of Poland in the Early Modern Period. Tübingen 2005 (Early Modern Period: Studies and Documents on German Literature and Culture in a European Context 103).
• Hans-Jürgen Bömelburg: Between Polish Estates Society and the Prussian Authoritarian State. From Royal Prussia to West Prussia (1756–1806). Munich 1993 (Publications of the Federal Institute for East German Culture and History 5)
• Hartmut Boockmann: East Prussia and West Prussia. Berlin 1992 (German History in Eastern Europe).
• Włodzimierz Borodziej, Hans Lemberg (eds.): “Our homeland has become a foreign land to us...”. The Germans east of the Oder and Neisse 1945–1950. Documents from Polish archives. Vol. 4: The Pomerellian and Gdańsk (West Prussia) Voivodeships. Edited by Ingo Eser, Witold Stankowski. Marburg 2004 (Sources on the History and Regional Studies of East-Central Europe 4,4).
• Andrzej Bukowski: Pomorze Gdańskie 1807–1850. Wybór źródeł [Gdańsk Pomerania 1807–1850. A Selection of Sources]. Wrocław 1958.
• Karin Friedrich: The Other Prussia. Royal Prussia, Poland and Liberty, 1569–1772. Cambridge 2000 (Cambridge Studies in Early Modern History).
• Jörg Hackmann: East Prussia and West Prussia from a German and Polish Perspective. Regional History as a Problem of Interrelations. Wiesbaden 1996 (German Historical Institute, Warsaw, Sources and Studies 3).
• Przemysław Hauser: The German Minority in Pomerelia during the Interwar Period. Poznań 1998 (Seria historia, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań 193).
• Gerard Labuda, Stanisław Salmonowicz (eds.): Historia Pomorza [History of Pomerania]. 4 vols. Poznań 1969–2001, Toruń 2000–2002.
• Janusz Małłek: Two Parts of Prussia. Studies in the History of Ducal Prussia and Royal Prussia in the 16th and 17th Centuries [Two Parts of Prussia. Studies on the History of Royal Prussia in the 16th and 17th Centuries]. Olsztyn 1987.
• Janusz Małłek: Prussia and Poland. Politics, Estates, the Church and Culture from the 16th to the 18th Century. Stuttgart 1992 (Publications of the Mainz Faculty of Philosophy Society 12).
• Ernst Opgenoorth (ed.): Handbook of the History of East and West Prussia. 3 vols. Lüneburg 1994–1998 (Monographs of the Historical Commission for East and West Prussian Regional Research 10,1–3).
• Christian Pletzing: From the ‘Spring of Nations’ to National Conflict. German and Polish Nationalism in East and West Prussia 1830–1871. Wiesbaden 2003 (German Historical Institute, Warsaw, Sources and Studies 13).
• Pomerelia – Prussia – Gdańsk Pomerania. Forms of collective identity in a German-Polish region. Nordost-Archive. Journal of Regional History. New Series, 6 (1997) 2.
• Miloš Řeznik: Pomerania between Poland and Prussia. Patriotism and identity in Royal Prussia during the Partitions of Poland [Pomerania between Poland and Prussia. Patriotism and identity in Royal Prussia during the Partitions of Poland]. Prague 2001 (Acta Universitatis Carolinae Philosophica et historica Monographia 157).
• Klaus Zernack: Poland in the History of Prussia. In: Otto Büsch (ed.): Handbook of Prussian History. Vol. 2: The 19th Century and Major Themes in the History of Prussia. Berlin, New York 1992, pp. 377–447.

• Henryk Baranowski, Werner Tannhof (eds.), with the collaboration of Kolja Alecsander Lotz: Bibliography on the History of East and West Prussia. Marburg 1999–2008.
• Stanisław Gierszewski, Zbigniew Nowak (eds.): Słownik biograficzny Pomorza Nadwiślańskiego [Biographical Dictionary of Vistula Pomerania]. Gdańsk 1992–2002.
• Heinz Neumeyer: Bibliography on the Church History of Danzig and West Prussia. Leer 1967.
• Maximilian Rankl (ed.): Bibliography on the Literature of East and West Prussia, including Danzig. Bonn 1990.
• Ernst Wermke: Bibliography of the History of East and West Prussia. Marburg 1933–1996.

• www.kujawsko-pomorskie.pl/ (official website of the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship)
• urzad.pomorskie.eu/pl (official website of the Pomeranian Voivodeship)
• kpbc.umk.pl/ (Kuyavia-Pomerania Digital Library/Kujawsko-Pomorska Biblioteka Cyfrowa)
• dlibra.bibliotekaelblaska.pl/ (Elbląg Digital Library/Elbląska Biblioteka Cyfrowa)
• pbc.gda.pl/ (Pomerania Digital Library/Pomorska Biblioteka Cyfrowa)

[1] Richard Böckh: The German Population and Language Area in the European States. Berlin 1869, p. 237.

[2] Kazimierz Wajda: Demographic Conditions in the Pomeranian Region between 1850 and 1914. In: Stanisław Salmonowicz (ed.): *Historia Pomorza* [History of Pomerania]. Vol. 4: 1850–1918, Part 1: *Ustrój, gospodarka, społeczeństwo* [System of Government, Economy, Society]. Toruń 2000, pp. 125–126, Table 23.

[3] Wajda: Stosunki ludnościowe (note 2), p. 123, Table 21.

[4] In the Pomerelia Voivodeship, censuses were carried out in 1921 and 1931. Their results are often contested on account of the criteria used. However, they clearly illustrate the change in the national composition.

[5] First General Census of the Republic of Poland of 30 September 1921. Dwellings. Population. Occupational status. Pomeranian Voivodeship [First General Census of the Republic of Poland of 30 September 1921. Dwellings. Population. Occupational status. Pomeranian Voivodeship]. In: Statistics of Poland published by the Central Statistical Office of the Republic of Poland. Vol. 25. Warsaw 1927, p. 87.

[6] Second General Population Census of 9 December 1931. Dwellings and Households. Population. National Affiliation. Pomeranian Voivodeship [Second General Population Census of 9 December 1931. Dwellings and Households. Population. Ethnic Composition. Pomeranian Voivodeship]. In: Central Statistical Office of the Republic of Poland, Statistics of Poland. Series C, No. 75. Warsaw 1938, p. 27.

[7] For further reading, see, amongst others: Jens Stüben (ed.): East Prussia – West Prussia – Danzig. A Historical Literary Landscape. Oldenburg 2007 (Publications of the Federal Institute for Culture and History of the Germans in Eastern Europe 30).

[8] This was often still the case after 1945. For example, the work by Bruno Schumacher, which was reprinted (most recently in 2002 in Würzburg as a special edition): *History of East and West Prussia*. Königsberg/Pr. 1937 (East Prussian Regional Studies in Individual Monographs); Erich Keyser: History of the German Vistula Region. Leipzig 1939; Erich Keyser: *History of the City of Danzig*. Kitzingen/M. [c. 1951] (Publications of the Göttingen Working Group 11).

[9] E.g. Wacław Sobieski: Walka o Pomorze [The Struggle for Pomerelia]. Poznań 1928 (German edition: The Struggle for the Baltic Sea from the Earliest Times to the Present. Leipzig 1933 [Memoirs of the Baltic Institute 13 = Ser. Balticum 5]); Kazimierz Smogorzewski: La Poméranie Polonaise. Paris 1932; Łukasz Kurdybacha: Polish–Gdańsk Cultural Relations in the 18th Century. Gdańsk 1937 (Studia gdańskie 1); Józef Borowik (ed.): Polskie Pomorze [Polish Pomerania]. Vol. 1: Ziemia i ludzie [Land and People], Vol. 2: Przeszłość i kultura [Past and Culture]. Toruń 1929–1931.

[10] See Hackmann: East Prussia and West Prussia; Marian Biskup (ed.): Results of North Polish Historiography in the Years 1945–1990, Toruń 1992 (Zapiski Historyczne 57, 1).

[11] See, for example, Friedrich: The Other Prussia; Miloš Řeznik: Pomerelia and Danzig in the Age of Royal Prussia. In: Tanja Krombach (ed.): The Cultural Landscape of East and West Prussia. In memoriam Heiko Stern. Potsdam 2005 (Potsdam Library on Eastern Europe, History), pp. 265–272.

Beata Lakeberg: Pommerellen/West Prussia. In: Online Encyclopaedia on the Culture and History of Germans in Eastern Europe, 2013. URL: ome-lexikon.uni-oldenburg.de/54164.html (as at 11 June 2021).