Szczecin

Polish: Szczecin

Sedinum

The etymology is unclear. Possible derivations suggest a Slavic *ščit (hilltop – Polish ‘szczyt’) or *ščet (embankment).

Location: 53° 26′ North, 14° 34′ East, approximately 120 km north-east of Berlin. Altitude: 1–148 m above mean sea level, area: 300 km².

The town centre is situated on the hills of the western bank of the lower Oder (Odra), which flows into Lake Dammer (Jezioro Dąbskie) and the Szczecin Lagoon (Zalew Odrzański) to the north of the town. The town’s boundaries extend eastwards to the edge of the lowland formed by the main channel of the Oder and its tributary, the Reglitz (Regalica).

Pomerania: until 1945: Western Pomerania; from 1945: Western Pomerania (Pomorze Zachodnie).^[1]

Republic of Poland. Szczecin is the administrative centre of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship (Województwo Zachodniopomorskie), established in 1999; prior to that, from 1950 onwards, it had been the centre of the Szczecin Voivodeship (Województwo Szczecińskie). Until 1945, Szczecin was the seat of the High Presidency of the Province of Pomerania and of the Szczecin Administrative District, which comprised Western Pomerania and Western Hinterpommern. Since 1992, the city has been the seat of the Archbishop of Szczecin-Kamień (Archidiecezja szczecińsko-kamieńska).

The coat of arms depicts a red griffin’s head – derived from the Pomeranian princely dynasty of the same name – with a golden crown on a blue background. It has been in use with only minor alterations since the end of the 13th century.

Archaeological research has revealed an Iron Age fortified settlement (c. 500 BC) on the castle hill. A Slavic settlement existed from the second half of the 8th century, whilst a castle settlement with a suburbium between the castle hill and the River Oder was established in the mid-9th century. As reliable written sources are only available from the 12th century onwards, archaeological research is of great importance to the town’s history.

The first written mention of Stettin is found in the *Vita* of Bishop Otto of Bamberg (c. 1065–1139) from the first half of the 12th century, in the context of the Christianisation of Pomerania. In 1121, the Polish King Bolesław Krzywousty (Crooked-Mouth, 1085–1138) conquered the town, thereby paving the way for Bishop Otto’s missionary journeys in 1124 and 1128. At that time, Szczecin was a political and religious centre with a burgher constitution. The town was already densely built-up and, as an economic centre at the mouth of the Oder, had replaced the early urban trading settlement of Wollin/Wolin. Earlier identifications of Szczecin in a place name in the *Dagome iudex* register, which refers to the year 992, are now considered untenable.

In the second half of the 12th century, the Pomeranian Duke Bogislaw I (c. 1130–1187) sought protection from the Holy Roman Empire and Poland against Danish attacks, and in 1181 paid homage to Emperor Frederick I (c. 1122–1190). Danish rule over the city lasted from 1185 until the Battle of Bornhöved in 1227. In 1237, Duke Barnim I (c. 1210–1278) transferred judicial authority in the town to the German townspeople, and in 1243, Stettin was granted Magdeburg town charter. The town’s establishment under German law was accompanied by a topographical reorganisation: The areas along the River Oder that were already built up were given a new street and plot layout, and St James’s Church, which had initially been situated outside the town, now became the centre of the German town community. Furthermore, in 1249 the castle was demolished and St Mary’s Church was erected on its site. There is evidence of a town council from 1263 onwards, and of a town wall from 1283. The town’s independence came to an end in 1345 under Duke Barnim III (c. 1303–1368), who pushed through the construction of a new castle. With the beginning of Hohenzollern rule in neighbouring Brandenburg, prolonged conflicts arose between the Pomeranian Greifen and the Hohenzollerns, as well as amongst the various branches of the Greifen dynasty over Stettin, until, in 1493, Duke Bogislaw X. (1454–1523) finally recognised the Hohenzollerns’ claim to succession should the Greifen dynasty die out, in return for being released from feudal dependence.

Under Bogislaw X, who ruled over the whole of Pomerania and reformed the provincial administration, Stettin became the Duke’s permanent residence. In 1534, the Dukes of Pomerania embraced the Reformation; in 1535, Johannes Bugenhagen (1485–1558) published the first Pomeranian church order. Paul von Rode (1489–1563) had already been working as a Lutheran preacher in Stettin. In 1570, the city was the venue for the Congress of Stettin, which brought the Seven Years’ Northern War to an end. During the Thirty Years’ War, Stettin was captured in 1630 by the Swedish King Gustav II Adolf (1594–1632). In 1637, the Greifen dynasty came to an end with the death of Bogislaw XIV (1580–1637); however, Szczecin remained under Swedish rule. During the Second Northern War (1655–1660), the city was a theatre of war but was not captured. In 1677, Szczecin was occupied by the Great Elector (Frederick William of Brandenburg, 1620–1688), but was subsequently returned to Sweden. During the Great Northern War, Stettin was besieged and captured by Russian troops in 1713, but was subsequently ceded to Brandenburg-Prussia, a move confirmed by the Treaty of Stockholm in 1720. Following its annexation by Prussia, three large forts – Leopold, Wilhelm and Preußen – were built. From 1806 to 1813, the city was occupied by Napoleonic troops.

During the industrialisation era, the city’s infrastructure was extensively expanded and modernised. Following the construction of the first railway station, the Neustadt district was developed from the 1840s onwards as a southern extension of the city. The dismantling of the town fortifications in 1873 led to further urban expansion on the site of Fort Leopold (administrative buildings and a museum on Hakenterrasse [wały Chrobrego]) and Fort Wilhelm (construction of rental flats). Parts of the site of the former Fort Preußen are still used for military purposes today.

In the spring of 1919, prolonged revolutionary clashes broke out in the city. In 1939, the municipal area of Greater Stettin was established through the incorporation of numerous neighbouring towns, including Altdamm (Dąbie) and Pölitz (Police). In November 1938, the synagogue on Grüne Schanze (ul. Dworcowa) was destroyed. In February 1940, the Jewish inhabitants of Stettin were deported to the General Government – Stettin being the first major German city to be affected. During the Second World War, Szczecin was severely damaged by bombing raids in 1943–1944. On 26 April 1945, the city was captured by the Red Army (1st Belorussian Front).

In the period that followed, two rival city administrations emerged: a Polish one under Piotr Zaremba (1910–1993) from 28 April, and a (Communist) German one in early May. On 5 July 1945, the Soviet city commander handed over control of the city administration to Mayor Zaremba. Until October 1945, the city’s western boundary also marked the western border of Poland. The port remained largely under the control of the Soviet Army until 1947; among other things, it was used for the transport of dismantled equipment from the Soviet Occupation Zone. A Soviet transhipment station remained in operation there until 1955. From February 1946, the German population was resettled via ‘transit points’ run by the repatriation authority, whilst Polish immigrants (displaced persons as well as Poles resettled from the eastern territories) were forwarded to their new places of residence. At the same time, Szczecin became, for several years, a stopover for more than 30,000 Jews who wished to emigrate from Eastern Europe to Palestine or to the West.

In December 1956, protests and street clashes broke out in Szczecin, during which the Soviet consulate was stormed and ransacked. In 1959, the visit by the General Secretary of the Soviet Communist Party, Nikita Khrushchev (1894–1971), emphasised the city’s affiliation with Poland – a fact perceived by many of its new residents as uncertain. During unrest following price rises in December 1970, the Voivodeship Committee of the Polish United Workers’ Party (PVAP) was set on fire; 16 people were shot dead by the militia and the army or lost their lives. This was followed by the first sit-in strike at the shipyard, which ended only when the new General Secretary, Edward Gierek (1913–2011), visited at the end of January. On 18 August 1980, a new wave of strikes began at the shipyard and in numerous other workplaces across the city. On 30 August – one day before the Gdańsk Agreement – the first agreement was reached between the strikers (led by Marian Jurczyk) and the government, resulting in the formation of the independent trade union Solidarność. Following the imposition of martial law in December 1981 and the banning of Solidarność, a fresh wave of strikes broke out in the summer of 1988.

Following the Round Table agreements of 1989, the first democratic local elections took place in May 1989, in which 52 out of 60 seats in Szczecin went to lists from the Solidarność camp. Jan Bielecki became the city’s first non-socialist mayor. From 1998 to 2006, the former strike leader Marian Jurczyk served as mayor; however, his term in office was marked by numerous political controversies due to his nationalist policies and allegations of collaboration with the State Security Service. Piotr Krzystek has been mayor since 2006 (Civic Platform; independent since 2010).

The introduction of Magdeburg municipal law was accompanied by the establishment of a council of lay judges, from which the city council emerged. From the mid-14th century until the end of the Greifen dynasty, Stettin was the ducal residence and, from the reign of Bogislaw X onwards, the centre of the provincial administration. Following its annexation by Prussia, the city’s autonomy was severely curtailed; Szczecin became the seat of numerous provincial authorities, as well as of the Pomeranian Estates (a representative Baroque building, 1726/1727).

The Prussian municipal reform at the beginning of the 19th century led to the establishment of a new system of municipal self-government. After Swedish Vorpommern was ceded to Prussia in 1815, Stettin became the seat of the High Presidency of the new province of Pomerania. The last Chief President was the Nazi Gauleiter Franz Schwede(-Coburg) (1888–1960), who held the post from January 1934 until the end of the war.

At the time of Otto von Bamberg’s missionary work in 1124, Stettin had a population of approximately 3,000–5,000. By the mid-14th century, the figure had risen to 8,000–9,000 and did not exceed 11,000 inhabitants until the city was annexed by Prussia in 1721. From the 14th century onwards, the originally Slavic, Pomeranian-speaking population predominantly made up the lower strata of the urban population. However, this ethnic shift was not only the result of migration, but also of acculturation processes linked to social advancement.

At the beginning of the Prussian period, more than 600 Huguenots migrated to Stettin. Jews are documented in Stettin from 1271 onwards; in the early modern period, however, both Swedish and Prussian authorities prohibited them from residing in the city. A Jewish community did not emerge until after the Emancipation Edict of 1812. The occupational structure of the Jewish population was dominated by the liberal professions, wholesalers, small traders and artisans; manufacturers such as the textile entrepreneur Nathan Marx (1873–1929) were also present. The number of Jewish residents reached approximately 2,400 in 1880 and then rose only slightly, despite the city’s growing overall population. In the 19th century, the population of Stettin grew rapidly from 19,000 (1805) to over 65,000 (1864) and then to 141,000 (1895). By the start of the First World War, the population had risen to 249,000. With the creation of Greater Stettin, the population stood at 380,000 in 1939.^[2] In 1940, the Jewish population was deported to the General Government; only a few of them survived the Holocaust. In the summer of 1945, approximately 85,000 people lived in Szczecin; most of them were Germans, some of whom had returned to the city after the war following their evacuation, whilst others had been sent back there by the Soviet occupying forces. Following the almost complete forced resettlement of the German inhabitants, 180,000 people were living in Szczecin in 1950. Unlike in Upper Silesia or Masuria, for example, the proportion of ‘autochthonous’ (German-speaking) inhabitants – apart from the temporary continued employment of German ‘experts’ – was very low after 1945. Of the large number of Jewish immigrants who had arrived up until the early 1950s, only a few remained permanently in Szczecin. The anti-Semitic campaign of 1968 then brought Jewish life in the city largely to a standstill. By 1965, the population had risen to 312,000; by 1980, it stood at 388,000. Since then, it has changed less significantly; in recent years, it has been declining slightly: in 2009 it stood at 411,000 and in 2013 at 408,000.^[3]

In the Middle Ages, Szczecin was part of the Hanseatic trading network; the city’s economy was based primarily on the trade in grain (mentioned as early as 1243) and fish (from Vitten in Scania). From the end of the 13th century, Szczecin claimed the right of staple for trade on the River Oder and with the hinterland. The main imported goods were herring, salt and cloth. The city’s trade extended primarily to the western Baltic Sea and the city’s hinterland. An increase in long-distance trade via the Öresund was evident in the second half of the 16th century. The Loitz trading and banking house, which also operated in Danzig/Gdańsk and Lüneburg and had extensive trade links in the North Sea and Baltic Sea regions, was of supra-regional importance until its bankruptcy in 1572.

In 1752, the Stettin staple system was abolished. By the end of the 18th century, shipbuilding, tobacco manufacturing and sugar refining were the mainstays of the city’s economy. In 1843, the railway line to Berlin was completed, and in the years that followed, port throughput increased. In 1851, the ‘Vulcan’ shipyard was established; other industrial sectors included cement and chemical works, and later the iron and automotive industries. Following the First World War, the port and shipyards fell into decline. From 1938 onwards, the armaments industry, with the Pölitz hydrogenation plants, played an important role.

The economic structure of Szczecin within the People’s Republic of Poland was characterised by the port, the shipyard and the shipping company. The Szczecin shipyard initially managed to hold its own following the upheaval of 1989, but was closed in 2009; the site has remained unused ever since.

Medieval Stettin was characterised by merchants, craftsmen and fishermen. From the mid-12th century onwards, German merchants could be found in the town alongside the Slavic castle settlement. The linguistic and social transformation associated with the town charter under German law took place over a period of around 200 years (ten generations) without any reports of ethnic tensions. The centre of social activity for the merchants was the Seglerhaus on Heumarkt, not far from the Old Town Hall.

At the beginning of the 15th century, as in other Hanseatic cities, Stettin experienced social unrest and demands from the guilds for a say in the city’s governance. Further social conflicts arose at the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th centuries. The pre-revolutionary protests of 1847 are known as the ‘Potato Revolution’. With industrialisation and the increase in port handling, a broad lower class emerged alongside a small upper class of major merchants and industrialists; by the mid-19th century, this lower class was estimated to comprise up to 50 per cent of the urban population. The political spectrum following the founding of the German Empire was initially dominated by Conservatives and Liberals; after the Socialist Law was repealed, the SPD received between a quarter and a third of the vote until 1912.

Stettin was Christianised by Bishop Otto of Bamberg between 1124 and 1128; in the process, the Triglav sanctuary on the castle hill and the other Slavic places of worship were destroyed. The Reformation began in Szczecin in 1523 with an exchange of letters between the city council and Martin Luther (1483–1546). In 1526, Paul von Rode (1489–1563) became the first Protestant preacher at St James’s Church. In 1871, 90 per cent of the city’s population were Protestant, with 2.5 per cent each being Jewish and Catholic. The synagogue, built of brick in 1873, was destroyed in 1938.

From 1935 until its closure in 1937, Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1906–1945) headed the pastors’ seminary of the Protestant Confessing Church in Finkenwalde (Zdroje), which is now a district of Szczecin.

For the Polish Catholic population (who accounted for over 94 per cent of the total population in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in 2011), an apostolic administrator was initially appointed after the Second World War. Following the signing of the Warsaw Treaty, the Catholic Diocese of Szczecin-Cammin was established in 1972 and elevated to an archdiocese in 1992. In June 1987, Pope John Paul II (1920–2005) visited Szczecin and celebrated Mass with more than 600,000 people, an event which marked the beginning of the political upheavals of 1989.

The Municipal Museum was established from the collections of several associations and private individuals and, under the direction of Walter Riezler (1878–1965), moved into a new building in the centre of the Hakenterrasse in 1913. After 1945, it became part of the National Museum (Muzeum Narodowe w Szczecinie), which also includes, amongst other things, the Ständehaus building and the Museum of Szczecin’s History (Muzeum Historii Szczecina) in the Old Town Hall. Parts of the museum’s collection were transferred to Kiel after 1945 and have been housed in the Pomeranian State Museum in Greifswald since 1999. The Pomeranian Provincial Archives, which moved into its own building in 1900, have been part of the Polish State Archives since 1946. The Voivodeship Library was established in 1947 as the central library, evolving from the former City Library founded in 1874, which, under the leadership of Erwin Ackerknecht (1880–1960) had developed into one of the most modern municipal libraries in the German-speaking world; since 1994 it has been known as the Pomeranian Library (Książnica Pomorska). The Municipal Theatre on Königsplatz was built in 1849; following war damage, it was demolished in 1953. Also destroyed during the Second World War was the concert and club hall built by Franz Schwechten (1841–1924), on the site of which a new building was erected in 2014 (Fabrizio Barozzi, Alberto Veiga). The opera has been based in the castle since 1978.

A council school at St Jakobi existed from 1391. In 1543, the Princely Pädagogium was founded as an academic grammar school; by 1666, it had over 5,000 students. It continued as the Gymnasium Carolinum and the Gymnasium Academicum – or the Royal and Municipal Grammar School, respectively – in the 19th century. Other grammar schools included the Marienstiftsgymnasium, founded in 1830 (now LiceumOgólnokształcące No. II and No. IX). In the 19th century, several scientific societies were also founded, including the Pomeranian Society for History and Archaeology and the Entomological Society.

After 1945, several higher education institutions were established in Szczecin: the Technical University (Politechnika Szczecińska, now the Zachodniopomorski Uniwersytet Techniczny); the University of Szczecin (Uniwersytet Szczeciński) was established in 1985 from the Academy of Commerce (founded in 1946), the Academy of Education (founded in 1973) and other higher education institutions. Also worth mentioning are the Maritime Academy (Akademia Morska, 1947) and the Pomeranian Medical Academy (Pomorska Akademia Medyczna, 1948).

The modern development of Szczecin has been shaped above all by the construction of rental housing, which took place on the site of the former fortress and in the city’s former suburbs. The parallels with Berlin’s urban development are unmistakable; for instance, the drinking water and sewerage networks were designed in the 1860s by James Hobrecht (1825–1902), who later became Berlin’s city planning officer. Trams were introduced in 1879, and the suburbs on both sides of the River Oder were connected to the city centre by ferry services. The main cemetery, established from 1900 onwards and still in use today, plays an important role.

The increase in leisure time, now available to broader sections of the population, led to the emergence of a distinctive club culture – diverse in both social character and activities – towards the end of the 19th century. This initially included numerous choral, gymnastics and shooting clubs, as well as veterans’ associations following the wars of German unification. There were also numerous water sports clubs; the first bathing establishment on the River Parnitz (Parnica) was established in the 1890s. Popular destinations for day trips within the city included the parks established by the cement manufacturer Johannes Quistorp (today: Jasne Błonia and Kasprowicz Park ), and the Quistorp Tower in the Eckerberg Forest (Las Arkoński), the Grabów Gardens (Żeromski Park), as well asGrunwaldzki Square (plac Grunwaldzki), where numerous concerts were held, and the Haken Terrace. The first cinema was built in 1907 (now the Pionier Cinema).

Early centres of musical culture in Szczecin were the ducal court and the churches. Of particular note here is the composer Philipp Dulichius (1562–1631), who was a professor at the Princely Pädagogium and cantor at St Mary’s Church. The composer Carl Loewe (1796–1869) served as organist at St James’s Church and as the city’s music director from 1820 onwards. Today, Szczecin has not only an opera house and a philharmonic orchestra, but also an art academy with two music departments.

There have beenbook printers in Stettin since the 16th century. In the 19th century, booksellers such as Friedrich Heinrich Morin also acted as publishers. Notable newspapers since the 19th century include the Neue Stettiner Zeitung, the Pommersche Zeitung, the Stettiner Tageblatt and the Generalanzeiger für Stettin. Of the daily newspapers published after 1945, the *Głos Szczeciński* (the former party organ of the PVAP) and the *Kurier Szczeciński* are still in circulation today.

The writer Alfred Döblin (1878–1957) was born in Stettin, although he lived in Berlin from 1888 onwards. Also worth mentioning are the historian and writer Franz Kugler (1808–1858) and the writer and journalist Robert Prutz (1816–1872), who attended the Marienstiftsgymnasium in Stettin and, after working in Berlin, Halle and Hamburg, returned to live in Stettin from 1857 onwards.

Since the end of the People’s Republic, a vibrant Polish literary scene has developed in Szczecin, drawing its inspiration from the city’s location on the German-Polish border. *Pogranicza* (Border Regions) is the title of a literary journal that was published from 1994 to 2012. Well-known contemporary authors include Artur David Liskowacki and Inga Iwasiów.

The monuments from the Prussian-German era have largely disappeared or been destroyed. New monuments have been erected on their plinths or in their place. For example, the Monument to Gratitude (to the Soviet Army) now stands in place of the monument to Wilhelm I; Adam Mickiewicz stands where Frederick III once stood, and a Madonna on a crescent moon stands on the plinth of the Loewe Monument in front of St James’s Church. Numerous artistically valuable tombs in the Central Cemetery have been preserved and recently restored.

The city’s anniversary celebrations in 1993, marking the 750th anniversary of Magdeburg being granted city rights, signalled a shift in the culture of remembrance. The 1990s also saw the reconstruction of the Old Town, which had been almost entirely destroyed after 1945 with the exception of the Old Town Hall; this reflects a renewed focus on the city’s bourgeois German culture.

• Tadeusz Bialecki: *Historia Szczecina. Zarys dziejów miasta od czasów najdawniejszych do 1980 r.* [History of Szczecin. An outline of the city’s history from the earliest times to 1980]. Wrocław 1992.
• Tadeusz Bialecki (ed.): Encyclopaedia of Szczecin. 4 vols. Szczecin 1999–2007.
• Jörg Hackmann: Szczecin. On the impact of the German–Polish border on urban development after 1945. In Georg Stöber, Robert Maier (eds.): Borders and Border Regions in German and Polish History. Dividing Line or Meeting Place? Hanover 2000 (Studies in International Textbook Research 104), pp. 217–234.
• Gerard Labuda (ed.): Dzieje Szczecina [History of Szczecin]. 4 vols. Warsaw 1963–1998.
• Rafał Makała: Between Province and Metropolis. The Architecture of Szczecin in the Years 1891–1918 [Between Province and Metropolis. The Architecture of Stettin in the Years 1891–1918]. Szczecin 2011.
• Jan Musekamp: Between Stettin and Szczecin. Metamorphoses of a City from 1945 to 2005. Wiesbaden 2010 (Publications of the German Institute for Polish Studies, Darmstadt 27).
• Jan M. Piskorski, Bogdan Wachowiak, Edward Włodarczyk: Stettin. A Brief History of the City. Poznań 1994.
• Maciej Słomiński, Rafał Makała, Małgorzata Paszkowska: Baroque Szczecin. Architecture of the Years 1630–1780 [Szczecin barokowy. Architektura lat 1630–1780]. Szczecin 2000.
• Szczecin 1945–1946. Documents – Memoirs / Dokumenty – Wspomnienia. Edited by the Baltic Sea Academy Lübeck-Travemünde and the Institute of History at the University of Szczecin. 2nd ed. Rostock 1995.
• Martin Wehrmann: History of the City of Stettin. Stettin 1911.
• Wolfgang Wilhelmus: The List of Names of Jews Deported from the Stettin Administrative District in 1940. Rostock 2009 (Regional Contemporary History. Special Issue 3).

• encyklopedia.szczecin.pl (an online encyclopaedia about Szczecin, initiated by the Sedina Association and built using Wikipedia’s technology, with contributions from numerous institutions in the city)
• www.sedina.pl (an online portal run by the ‘Lovers of Old Szczecin’, containing a wealth of material and texts on the history of Szczecin)
• www.herder-institut.de/bildkatalog/wikidata/Q393 (Images relating to Stettin/Szczecin in the image archive of the Herder Institute, Marburg)

[1] The German term ‘Pommern’ (from the Slavic *pomor’e [land by the sea]) and the Polish term‘Pomorze’are not semantically equivalent. The latter encompasses the entire area from Western Pomerania to the present-day Russian border between Elbing/Elbląg and Königsberg/Kaliningrad. Western Pomerania is referred to in Polish as ‘Pomorze Zachodnie’ (literally: Western Pomerania). This name for the coastal region east of the Oder stems from the distinction from ‘Pomorze Wschodnie’ (literally: East Pomerania), which is also referred to as ‘Pomorze Gdańskie’ (literally: Gdańsk Pomerania [Pomerellia]). Following the demarcation of the border in 1945, the German-Polish border – rather than the River Oder – is now regarded in German as the boundary between Vorpommern and Hinterpommern. In Polish, the national border separates Pomorze Zachodnie from Pomorze Przednie (formerly: Zaodrzańskie). See also‘Pomerania’.

[2] Figures on the population of Szczecin up to 1980 according to: Piskorski, Wachowiak, Włodarczyk: Szczecin, pp. 19, 33, 79, 106, 114, 122, 136.

[3] Statistical Office in Szczecin (ed.): Population, natural change and migration in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in 2013. URL: szczecin.stat.gov.pl/download/gfx/szczecin/pl/defaultaktualnosci/756/5/1/1/ludnosc_ruch_naturalny_2013.pdf (accessed 21 November 2014); see also the Local Database of the Polish Central Statistical Office: stat.gov.pl/bdl/ (accessed 21 November 2014).

[4] Szczecin 1945–1946. Documents – Memoirs / Dokumenty – Wspomnienia.

Jörg Hackmann: Stettin/Szczecin. In: Online Encyclopaedia on the Culture and History of Germans in Eastern Europe, 2015. URL: ome-lexikon.uni-oldenburg.de/p32459 (as at 30 July 2021).