As long as there was no substantial and permanent demand for printed books in the regions of Eastern Europe, they were either purchased by booksellers based in Eastern Europe at book fairs in Frankfurt am Main and Leipzig, or commissioned from existing printing houses in the western part of the Holy Roman Empire (e.g. in Mainz). Production and distribution conditions varied from place to place. Nevertheless, common features can be found in the catalogues of all printing houses. In some cases, ‘itinerant printers’ were also active – travelling printers who printed whatever was commissioned of them. The letterpress printing technique developed by Johannes Gutenberg, using a wooden press and metal type, was adopted by printing workshops in Eastern Europe. This technical process remained essentially unchanged throughout the Early Modern period until the invention of the printing press by Friedrich König (1811).

The invention of printing, which replaced the dissemination of information via manuscripts or carved block books, coincided with the post-medieval reorientation of the sciences and the development of universities, with the increased engagement with antiquity and, finally, with the Reformation. Printing spread throughout Eastern Europe from the last quarter of the 15th century onwards, and these developments were thus immediately supported by the new medium.

Not only was the technical basis of printing the same in Eastern Europe as in the West, but the humanist education of many printers was also comparable to that in the West, as they had studied at the same universities in Saxony and the Netherlands. In the 16th and, indeed, the 17th century, production was dominated primarily by theological literature in the wake of the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation; however, the range of subjects expanded considerably. The regional focuses of book production, however, differed in terms of authors, subjects and languages; in this regard, no general statement can be made for Eastern Europe as a whole.

The first printer in Stettin/Szczecin was Franz Schlosser from Wittenberg, who printed official documents (1533–1538) and at least one almanac for Königsberg (1537). He was succeeded by Johann Eichhorn the Younger from Frankfurt (Oder), who worked here in 1568/69. The Kelner (Kellner), Rhete (Rethius, Rehte, Rehtius) and Starck families of printers left their mark on Szczecin’s printing history with *Theologica*, school texts and funeral sermons. From 1636, David Rhete printed the newspapers *Post-Zeitung * and *Bericht durch Pommern*.

Printing works also existed in Barth, Greifswald and Stralsund. The generally low volume of book production is probably due, above all, to the Swedish occupation of part of Pomerania from 1648 to 1815.

(see also West Prussia, East Prussia)

Prussia’s first printer and producer of incunabula was the goldsmith Jakob Karweyse, who produced at least two popular religious prints in Marienburg/Malbork (probably from 1492 onwards). A prerequisite for book printing in Danzig/Gdańsk was the flourishing paper industry. The itinerant printer Konrad Baumgarten printed religious texts and a schoolbook here around 1499/1500. With the arrival of the Rhode family of printers from Marburg, book printing became established in Danzig. Among the approximately 200 prints by Andreas Hünefeld are hymnals and prayer books, including some for the Reformed Church in Poland and Lithuania, schoolbooks and scholarly works, as well as poems by Martin Opitz (1597–1639) and others. Of significance to the history of European science are the private printing workshops of the astronomer Johannes Hevelius (1611–1687) and the botanist Johann Philipp Breyne (1680–1764). As a centre for the printing of music, with a far-reaching influence in Poland and Western Europe, Danzig was also a printing centre of supra-regional importance.

The publications fromElbing/Elbląg and Thorn/Toruń were of regional importance. The hymnals of Lutheran origin printed here had a significant impact, extending in some cases as far as Poland.

Printing had been carried out continuously in Königsberg since 1524. Hans Weinreich from Danzig, Hans Lufft from Wittenberg, Hans Daubmann (Taubmann) from Nuremberg, and Wolfgang Dietmar from Marienburg established the centre’s reputation for quality through the printing of church ordinances, theological and Reformation writings, as well as medical and Polish books. Between 1656 and 1659, Johann Reusner printed the *Europaeische ordinari Postzeitung* and the *Europaeische Wochentliche Zeitung*, which continued to be published until 1933 as the *Königsberger Hartungsche Zeitung *. Like his son Friedrich, he was not only a printer but also a publisher of notable poets such as Simon Dach and Georg Neumark. In Königsberg, books were also printed for Danzig and the Diocese of Pomesania; it was here that Ambrosius Lobwasser’s widely circulated hymn book (Hymni Patrum, 1578) was published, a Lithuanian hymn book (1667) and the arias by the cathedral organist Heinrich Albert (1604–1651), which had a significant influence on the development of the solo song.

The Great Legend of the Most Holy
Lady Saint Hedwig. Based on *
*, printed by Konrad Baum-
garten, Breslau 1504.
[Erlangen University Library,
Inc. 1174]

With 25 printing centres (including Upper Silesia, Moravian Silesia and Görlitz),Silesia was the region with the greatest number of printing centres in Eastern Europe. Wrocław/Breslau occupied a central position in terms of both the density and quality of its printing workshops. It was here that the incunabula printer and cleric Caspar Elyan printed for the cathedral chapter from 1475 onwards. Notable printers included Konrad Baumgarten (Grosse legenda der hailigsten frawen Sandt Hedwigis, 1504) and the Reformation printers Adam Dyon and Kaspar Libisch (Lybisch). In 1539, Andreas Winkler began printing scholarly works, a tradition that was continued in the output of the printing workshops run by the Scharffenberg and Baumann families, as well as that of Esaias Fellgiebel. From 1732, Johann Jacob Korn took over the printing, his publishing house acting as a bridge to the 19th and 20th centuries. His extensive output, which also included Polish works, served as a link between West and East. The Graß, Barth & Comp. municipal printing works was of a more regional nature.

In 1529, Simprecht Froschauer (actually Sorg) from Nikolsburg/Mikulov printed the first book in Liegnitz/Legnica. His printing house, together with that of Nikolaus Schneider and the princely printing works, established the high standard of the books. In Neisse/Nysa, Johann Creutziger (Cruciger) from Preschau/Prešov is thought to have been printing from 1541 onwards, primarily for the Bishop of Breslau, in order to act as a counterbalance to the Protestant printers in the provincial capital; the Schubart family of printers followed a similar approach. In Görlitz/Zgorzelec, Crispin Scharffenberg began printing books around 1545. Ambrosius Fritsch and Hans Rambau (Rhambaw) followed with important theological and regional works. The history of printing in Brieg/Brzeg began in 1610. The main items printed here were decrees, theological works, scholarly literature and occasional writings. Polish works were also printed at Johann Christoph Jakob’s press.

Hundsfeld/Psie Pole (now a district of Wrocław) was the seat of Paul Helitz’s printing house, where he printed the first Hebrew book in the German-speaking world in 1543. In Dyhernfurth/Brzeg Dolny, Sabbatai ben Joseph Bass (Schabtai) printed Hebrew books between 1689 and 1712.

The early history of printing in Bohemia has not yet been fully researched, but 44 incunabula bear witness to a flourishing printing industry. The first printed work (the Czech translation of Quido de Columna’s *Chronicle of Troy* from 1468) comes from the oldest Czech printing centre, Pilsen/Plzeň. It was there that the first copies of the *Statuta synodalia Arnesti*, dated 1476, were produced. In 1498/99, Mikulaš Balalář from Slovakia printed eight Czech books here. Between 1501 and 1513, he published a further 20 works covering a wide range of subjects.

Johannes Alakraw from Passau, who printed in Winterberg/Vimperk, was of particular significance to Bohemia. He also produced the first Czech wall calendar for the year 1485.

In Kuttenberg/Kutná Hora, Martin Tischnowitz was the printer of the Czech Kuttenberg Bible (1489), comprising 1,612 leaves and 116 woodcuts. After this print run, he moved to Prague/Praha, though no further prints by him are known.

Brno is of particular importance for Moravia. Konrad Stahl from Blaubeuren and Matthias Preinlein from Ulm printed here. Both had previously worked in Olomouc for the diocese. It is thought that they both printed Johannes de Thwrocz’s *Chronica Hungarorum* here in 1488, along with a total of more than ten books, mainly liturgical works.

In Olomouc, Preinlein printed from 1499, Konrad Baumgarten from 1500, and L. Fürstenhayn from 1504. Following a brief interval from 1538 to 1547 under Jan Olivetský, Jan Günther of Nuremberg opened a printing house in 1554, which was continued by his descendants. Olomouc thus remained the centre of Moravian book printing.

Non-Catholic printers, such as Simprecht Sorg in Nikolsburg, were also able to establish themselves in Moravia. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Znaim/Znojmo, Iglau/Jihlava and Troppau/Opava were added as printing centres. In South Moravia, the illegal printing press of the Bohemian Brethren operated in Eibenschitz/Ivančice; from 1578 onwards, it is documented as being in Kralitz/Kralice. Printing took place here from 1563 to 1619. Its principal work is the meticulously produced and annotated ‘Kralice Bible’ (1574–94) in the Bohemian language.

Prague occupied a special position within Bohemia and Moravia. Although it was only the third most important printing centre after Plzeň and Winterberg, Bohemian book printing experienced a golden age here until the start of the Thirty Years’ War. Notable examples include the high-quality works of Georgius Nigrinus (active 1571–1606), with over 600 printed works in several languages and specialist fields. Jewish printers had been active here since 1512/13. With the end of the Estates System (1618), Bohemian book printing – and with it, that of Prague – came to be increasingly dominated by Jesuit printers. Overall, production in Prague almost doubled during the 17th century. The Thirty Years’ War initially slowed this development. From 1650 onwards, only Catholic publishers and booksellers were permitted to operate in Bohemia. Between 1620 and 1700, there were 29 printing works in Bohemia, 20 of which were in Prague.

The first printer in what is now Slovakia was active in Pressburg/Bratislava between 1477 and 1480. It was not until 100 years later that further printing works were established in connection with the Reformation: Košice in 1560, Šintava in 1573, Komjatice in 1573–74, Bardejov in 1577, Banská Bystrica in 1578, Trnava in 1578, Plavecký Hrad/Detrekőváralja in 1579, Hlohovec/Galgóc in 1584, Bratislava in 1594, and Levoča in 1614. Bruno Brewer founded his printing house in Leutschau in 1625; it surpassed the existing ones in terms of production volume and quality and remained in operation until the mid-18th century. In addition to theological works, secular writings in Latin, German and Hungarian were also published in this region. By the end of the 17th century, 2,683 books had been printed in what is now Slovakia.

There is evidence of book printing in Transylvania dating back to 1529. In that year, the printer Lucas Trapoldner in Hermannstadt/Sibiu published a Latin grammar and a book on the plague. From 1544 onwards, Philipp Moler printed here (for the first time in Romanian), primarily producing liturgical works for the Romanians that were influenced by the Reformation. In the last quarter of the 18th century, the Hochmeister family expanded the printing works in Sibiu and attached a bookshop to it, the first branch of which was opened in Cluj-Napoca. Johann Barth founded a new printing works in 1693; it remained in operation until 1832.

InKronstadt/Brașov, the Transylvanian Reformer and parish priest Johannes Honter began printing in 1539. His printing house was the first to be established on a permanent basis and produced Reformation and legal writings as well as textbooks; his rhymed cosmography (1542 and later editions) enjoyed success throughout Europe. The printing house was continued by Valentin Wagner.

From 1550, Kaspar Helth (Heltai) printed at the press in Klausenburg founded by Georg Hoffgreff; it remained in operation well into the 17th century. It produced 250 of the 387 Transylvanian prints of the 16th century, thereby occupying a unique position not only in Transylvania but throughout the entire Hungarian-speaking world (Luther’s Catechism was first published in Hungarian by this press). Helth’s output was not limited to theological books, but also included historical and literary titles. Between 1557 and 1581, the deacon Coresi printed Cyrillic books of a religious nature. From 1668 onwards, Calvinist and Unitarian printing houses operated in Klausenburg.

Other printing centres included Alba Iulia from 1578/79, Sebeş from 1580 and Orăştie from 1582.

Wars and epidemics hampered book production in Transylvania: between 1601 and 1670, only 490 publications appeared, and between 1671 and 1700, 650; their significance no longer matched that of the 16th century. In the 18th century, 3,650 printed works were published, chiefly in Cluj, Sibiu and Brașov.

General

• Severin Corsten, Stephan Füssel, Günther Pflug et al. (eds.): Encyclopaedia of the Book Trade. 2nd, completely revised edition. LGB². Stuttgart 1987 onwards.
• Bernhard Fabian (ed.): Handbook of German Historical Book Collections in Europe. Hildesheim, Zurich, New York (Vol. 1–3: Czech Republic; Vol. 4: Slovak Republic; Vol. 5: Hungary; Vol. 6: Poland).
• Detlef Haberland (ed.): The Transfer of Books and Knowledge in East-Central and South-Eastern Europe in the Early Modern Period. Munich 2007 (Publications of the Federal Institute for Culture and History of the Germans in Eastern Europe 34).
• Hans Jessen: On Printers and Publishers in the German East. Kitzingen [1954] (The Göttingen Working Group. Series 41).
• Christoph Reske: Printers of the 16th and 17th Centuries in the German-speaking World. Wiesbaden 2007 (Contributions to Book and Library Studies 51).

Pomerania

• LGB², Vol. VI (2003), pp. 55ff.
• Gottlieb Mohnike: The History of the Art of Printing in Pomerania. Stettin 1840.
• Reske, pp. 860–866.

East and West Prussia

• Detlef Haberland: Printing in Danzig in the Early Modern Period. From Itinerant Printers to Mass Production. In: Jens Stüben (ed.): East Prussia, West Prussia, Danzig. A Historical Literary Landscape. Munich 2007 (Publications of the Federal Institute for Culture and History of the Germans in Eastern Europe 30), pp. 189–204.
• LGB², Vol. IV (1995), p. 175.
• Reske, pp. 145–151, 190–192, 482–489.
• Axel E. Walter (ed.): The History of Books and Libraries in Königsberg. Cologne et al. 2004 (From Archives, Libraries and Museums 1).

Silesia

• Helmut Claus: New Light on the Presses of Adam Dyon and Kaspar Libisch in Breslau (1518–1540). In: John L. Flood, William A. Kelly (eds.): *The German Book 1450–1750*. Studies presented to David L. Paisey on his retirement. London 1995, pp. 61–80.
• Detlef Haberland: An Annotated Bibliography on Book Publishing and Librarianship in Silesia up to 1800. Munich 2010 (Publications of the Federal Institute for Culture and History of the Germans in Eastern Europe 39).
• LGB², Vol. I (1987), pp. 260, 540ff.; Vol. III (1991), p. 199; Vol. IV (1995), p. 542.
• Reske, pp. 131ff., 179ff., 299–301, 550–552, 639–642.
• Alfred Świerk: The Beginnings of Printing in Breslau. In: Yearbook of the Silesian Friedrich-Wilhelm University in Breslau 23 (1982), pp. 171–177.

Bohemia, Moravia

• Beda Dudik: The Historical Development of Printing in Moravia. Brno 1879.
• LGB², Vol. I (1987), pp. 49, 481–484, 560ff.; Vol. V (1999), pp. 14ff., 183, 367, 444; Vol. VI (2003), pp. 12, 83–85; Vol. VII (2007), pp. 204, 441ff., 512–518.
• Josef Volf: History of Book Printing in Bohemia and Moravia up to 1848. Weimar 1928.

Slovakia

• Ján Čaplovič: Bibliography of Printed Works Published in Slovakia up to 1700. 2 vols. Martin 1972–1984.
• LGB², Vol. VII (2007), pp. 112–114.

Transylvania

• Gedeon Borsa (ed.): Old Transylvanian Prints (16th Century). Cologne 1996 (Schriften zur Landeskunde Siebenbürgens 21).
• LGB², Vol. III (1991), pp. 440, 529ff.; Vol. IV (1995), pp. 230, 352ff.; Vol. V (1999), p. 215; Vol. VII (2007), pp. 84–86.
• Christian Rother: Transylvania and Printing in the 16th Century. With a bibliography entitled ‘Transylvania and Printing’. Wiesbaden 2003 (Contributions to Book Studies from the German Book Archive, Munich 71).

• muzpap.pl/ (Paper Museum, Bad Reinerz/Duszniki Zdrój, Silesia)
• muzeumdrukarstwa.eu/ (Printing Museum, Cieszyn, Silesia)
• muzeumdrukarstwa.muzeumwarszawy.pl/ (Printing Museum, Warsaw)

Detlef Haberland: The History of Books and Printing up to 1800. In: Online Encyclopaedia on the Culture and History of Germans in Eastern Europe, 2011. URL: ome-lexikon.uni-oldenburg.de/p32749 (as at 1 October 2021).